Foreword
By: Dr. James Waller
Director of Academic Programs
Auschwitz Institute for Peace and Reconciliation
Genocide prevention is not what makes headlines, but it is what prevents the worst of headlines from being made. Why is genocide prevention so important? In short, genocide prevention reduces four types of costs—human, instability, economic, and diplomatic. Genocide prevention is primarily focused on reducing human costs through the protection and preservation of human life and security. In addition, however, genocide prevention reduces instability costs by contributing to national peace and stability in fragile countries, as well as promoting regional and international peace and stability. Prevention’s importance also reduces economic costs as prevention is much less costly than intervening to stop genocide or rebuilding in the aftermath of a mass destruction that has destroyed the development trajectory of a state or region. Finally, genocide prevention reduces diplomatic costs as it reinforces state sovereignty by limiting the more intrusive and invasive forms of response, from other States or international actors, that may be required to halt genocide.1
This Training Resource Manual for Genocide and Mass Atrocity Prevention in the Great Lakes Region of Africa, the first of its kind in the field, reflects and affirms this understanding by focusing on the preventive measures that can be applied to protect civilians from genocide and mass atrocity. This continuum of strategies includes preventing genocide from ever taking place, preventing further atrocities once genocide has begun, and preventing future atrocities once a society has begun to rebuild after genocide. Central is the notion that prevention does not end when the violence begins; rather prevention of genocide is a multilayered approach running throughout the preconflict, midconflict, and postconflict cycle. As Gareth Evans argues: “‘Prevention’ language can reasonably be applied at all stages of the conflict cycle.”
Let us contextualize this continuum of prevention strategies in an analogy. Imagine you are standing beside a river and see someone caught in the current and struggling for their life. You jump in and manage to pull the victim ashore. Just as you catch your breath, however, another person in distress comes downstream… followed by another and another and another. Rather than remaining downstream and exhausting yourself on the rescue of individuals already in distress, you travel upstream to find the source of the problem. You may discover a hole in a bridge or perhaps the lack of a protective fence on a cliff. You have changed, though, the calculus of what prevention means—rather than expending your resources and energy on rescuing people in crisis, you can now try to stop the crisis at its source. Saving victims in crisis and fixing the source of the crisis are both forms of prevention—as is helping victims the moment they fall into the river rather than waiting until they have been swept downstream—each simply occurs at different stages of the process of prevention. Clearly, focusing prevention efforts on the source of the crisis, before it happens, is more efficient and less costly than managing the consequences of the crisis once it has occurred. You may not stop all of the people from falling into the river, at least not right away, but—by addressing the root cause—you have decreased the risk and there will be far fewer people to rescue downstream.
This analogy is uncomfortably close to the real-life tragedy of thousands of bodies, as many as one hundred an hour, washing down the Kagera River into Lake Victoria in Uganda—the second largest body of fresh water in the world—at the height of the Rwandan genocide. Except, in that case, the bodies had already lost their struggle for life. At that point, addressing the root cause of the problem upstream fell secondary to the severe downstream consequences in Uganda. A May 21, 1994 news report cited “the difficulty of fighting off the wild animals and dogs feeding on the bodies” as well as the “acute health hazard” caused by the decaying corpses washing ashore in southern Uganda or onto islands in Lake Victoria. Villagers in the region were warned to boil drinking water and to cook all fish thoroughly in order to prevent epidemics of cholera and other diseases.
Following a population-based health model in which the aim is the prevention of the disease of genocide and other mass atrocities, we can envision a continuum of prevention strategies—primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary prevention is upstream prevention––fixing the hole in the bridge or constructing a protective barrier to prevent people from falling into the river. Upstream prevention is the “before” analysis of the longer-term governance, historical, economic, and societal factors that leave a country at risk for genocide and other mass atrocities and the inoculation avenues open to mitigating those risk factors. Secondary prevention is midstream prevention––the rescue of victims just as they hit the water but before they are swept further downstream. Midstream prevention “during” the crisis captures the immediate, real-time relief efforts—political, economic, legal, and military—that are direct crisis management tactics to slow, limit, or halt the mass violence. Finally, tertiary prevention is downstream prevention––the hopeful resuscitation of victims who were swept away because upstream or midstream prevention failed. Downstream prevention refers to the “after” efforts to foster resiliency by dealing with the acute long-term consequences of mass violence through pursuits of justice, truth, and memory to help stabilize, heal, and rehabilitate a post-genocide society. The strategies available to us for upstream prevention are far more numerous, and much less costly, than the available strategies for midstream prevention once genocide has broken out or, even more so, for downstream prevention for rebuilding after the genocide is over.
While this continuum may give us a helpful framework from which to approach prevention, we should remember that mass atrocities are often more cyclical than linear. So upstream, midstream, and downstream prevention efforts work in an interconnected and synergistic, rather than isolated, fashion. In addition, most conflicts are an intricate tangle of preconflict, midconflict, and postconflict at any one time. As a result, the defining element of an upstream preventive approach, for example, is not “when” it takes place but rather that it seeks to address the underlying causes of conflict. “In theory, interventions to prevent conflict upstream can be undertaken at any point during the conflict cycle, even at the same time as measures to address the symptoms of conflict are also being carried out.” In short, these stages of prevention, and the measures involved in each, are complexly linked and state responsibility, buttressed by international assistance for capacity building, is threaded throughout all three stages of the continuum.
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In his concluding chapter to The Drowned and the Saved, his last completed work, Auschwitz survivor Primo Levi reminds us of the importance of genocide and mass atrocity prevention. Written more than 40 years after the end of the Holocaust, Levi writes: “It happened, therefore it can happen again: this is the core of what we have to say. It can happen, and it can happen everywhere.” This quote is featured in the lobby of the information center at the Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin, Germany. Left out, however, is the next sentence: “I do not intend to nor can I say that it will happen.” Although Levi was likely hedging his bets against the repetition of something so unthinkable—even as he admits in 1986 that “precursory signs loom before us” in several corners of the world—I believe he is also challenging us to recognize that even though genocide can happen again, it does not have to happen again. Genocide is not preordained, despite its persistent occurrence, as an inevitable reality of the human experience.
Over a quarter of a century later, in 2014, Adama Dieng echoed Levi’s concern, as well as his hope: “We must accept that there is no part of the world that can consider itself immune from the risk of genocide and all regions and all States must build resistance to these crimes… We owe to them [the millions of men and women who have lost their lives to genocide] and to ourselves and future generations to realize a world free of genocide. We are still far from that, but we aim to make it happen.” Although Levi and Dieng are separated by a vast crevasse of time, culture, and distance, together they push us to acknowledge our collective responsibility for doing what we can to prevent genocide from happening again. This training resource manual, by providing a wealth of learning materials to help expand our understanding of the scope and range of instruments and approaches to genocide and mass atrocity prevention, is an important step in advancing that collective responsibility.
1These reasons are taken from United Nations, “Framework of Analysis for Atrocity Crimes: A Tool for Prevention,” (2014). pp.2
2Gareth Evans, The Responsibility to Protect: Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and For All (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008). pp.281
3This analogy is compiled from examples given by the University of Denver and the Institute for Work and Health (both accessed February 10, 2015)
4Donatella Lorch, “Thousands of Rwanda Dead Wash Down to Lake Victoria,” accessed February 12, 2015 at http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/africa/052194rwanda-genocide.html
5USAID, “Field Guide: Helping Prevent Mass Atrocities,” (2015). pp.26
6Saferworld, “Upstream Conflict Prevention: Addressing the Root Causes of Conflict”, (September, 2012). pp.2
7Quoted material is taken from Primo Levi, The Drowned and the Saved (New York, NY: Vintage International, 1988). pp.199
8Quoted material is taken from UN News Centre, http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=49556 (December 9, 2014), accessed December 14, 2014.
Introduction
Background
Prevention is gaining tremendous worldwide attention, for example, by international, regional and national bodies and civil society organizations, as opposed to costly and lengthy post genocide and mass atrocity interventions. At the same time, contested political processes to access state power, resource disparities and perceptions of discrimination continue to foment instability and violent conflicts within or between states and communities in many parts of the world. These conditions adversely bear on human life, freedoms, development, peace, and account for the fragility of states and their capacity to prevent the occurrence or recurrence of mass atrocities and genocide.
The legal and practical approaches necessary to advance prevention also continue to evolve through various works by, for example, the United Nations, inter-governmental bodies like the Africa Union and the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region, universities, international and local civil society organizations.
To this end, AIPR conducted a baseline assessment to determine capacity gaps and training needs towards the prevention of genocide and mass atrocities in the Great Lakes Region. Participants in the assessment were members of national mechanisms for the prevention of genocide from Burundi, The Republic of Congo, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and South Sudan. Others were selected from non-governmental organizations, academia and media. Academic papers, media reports and commentaries on various post-conflict interventions by practitioners in this field were also reviewed.
At the regional level, it was clear that countries, although signatories to relevant international or regional instruments, there is lack of sufficient knowledge and capacity (logistics, human, structures, policies, institutional frameworks etc) to implement associated national and grassroots programs towards genocide and mass atrocity prevention. A number of instruments also reflect a lack of community level input, know-how on prevention, while others fall short of responding to coordination challenges.
At country level, it was observed that there are no clear policies developed to articulate or spell out country positions and institutionalized approaches to prevention. State-centric approaches were also found to be either out of touch with grassroots realities and lack legislation to support community level initiatives. This included, for example, lack of space for traditional and religious authorities to play prominent roles in prevention efforts, while their subjects also remain largely unaware of “how to prevent.”
At the civil society level, relationships between international and domestic organizations with host governments remain negative and efforts by states towards protection of citizens often fail to engage and integrate CSOs. Many organizations were also found lacking in knowledge and skills about how prevention should look like at the local level. This is despite the fact that CSOs tend to have stronger connections with communities because the critical gaps they fill in service delivery. Thus they are, in most cases, better suited to work to reduce tensions yet lack the capacity to effectively engage and provide guidance to their governments or communities on prevention.
Information collected was analyzed and this manual has been developed after the initial assessment revealed a lack of comprehensive resources offering information that can guide genocide and mass atrocity work in the region. The findings were also categorized into thematic areas, reflecting on the unique regional needs, skills, and knowledge gaps that were identified.
The Resource Manual
This online resource manual contains a collection of some of the existing resources that regional and national mechanisms can learn from and use as reference materials to gain insight into the nature and practice of prevention. The resources are in the form of legal and other instruments from the UN and regional bodies, research papers, recommendations, best practices and lessons learned, and reports from other forms of interventions in conflict situations.
Methodology
During the compilation of this manual, a range of qualitative research methods was employed including document reviews and group discussions. While conducting the base line assessment focus group discussions, document reviews and structured interviews were conducted with key informants in this field both in the Great Lakes Region and other areas of the world. Extensive desk and internet based research was used for the compilation of the actual resource manual.
Who will use the Resource Manual?
The main objective of the manual is to provide an extensive and comprehensive list of learning resources, including legal instruments, scholarly articles, reports from international and civil society organization, governments, etc. Therefore the resources will be used by a variety of audiences including;
- State and civil society leaders and policy makers
- Religious and traditional leaders
- Program officers, trainers and facilitators
- Women, youth and the general public
Note for use of the Manual
This is a manual containing some of the existing resources already developed and published by authors as indicated by the links provided. It is not a one-stop center for approaches, answers or guidelines to the prevention of genocide and mass atrocities. Users are therefore advised to use these resources as a starting point towards further research and training, or as reference material while undertaking their own work. The information contained should as much as possible to adapted to the unique circumstances and needs the user may encounter.
Prevention of genocide and mass atrocities is a multilayered approach running throughout the pre-, mid-, and post-conflict cycle. It is therefore advisable to conduct a local needs assessment to determine the most appropriate preventive intervention i.e. depending on whether the level of conflict. That way, these resources can be helpful during analysis, imaging an intervention, or identifying suitable partnerships and collaboration towards any preventive work.
Layout of the Resource Manual
Chapter 1: The Practice of Genocide Prevention
- Genocide and Prevention as Concepts, their Process and Possible Indicators
- What is Genocide and Mass Atrocity Prevention and How to Prevent
Chapter 2: Genocide Prevention and the State: Roles and Approaches
- Establishing and Managing National Structures
- Application of International/Regional Instruments and Norms
- African Union
- Inter governmental Authority on Development (IGAD)
- International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR)
- East African Community (EAC)
- Southern African Development Cooperation (SADC)
- United Nations (UN)
- Responsibility to Protect (RtoP)
- International Criminal Court (ICC) and other Specialized Tribunals
- Working with Organs of the State: Institutions for Running the Affairs of the State e.g. the Executive, Parliament, Judiciary, Military and the Police
- Working with Local Governments: County, Sub – County, Parish and Village Council/Committees
Chapter 3: Genocide Prevention and the Civil Society: Roles and Approaches
- Working with Political Organizations
- Working with Religious Leaders and Institutions
- Working with Non Governmental Organizations (NGO’s)
- Working with Traditional Leaders
- Working with Women and Youth
- Working with Minorities and Grassroots Communities
Chapter 4: Approaches to Early Warning and Early Response: Application and Management
- Existing Early Warning and Early Response Frameworks for Genocide and Mass Atrocity Prevention: Lessons Learned and Best Practices
- Working with the State and Civil Society towards Early Warning
- Data Collection, Analysis and Verification for Early Warning and Early Response
- Documentation and Reporting for Early Warning and Early Response
- Working with State and Civil Society towards Early Response
- Working with International and Regional Organizations for Early Warning and Early Response
- Limitations of Early Warning and Early Response: Options of Redress
Chapter 5: Skills for Handling of Genocide and Mass Atrocity Prevention
- Planning and Implementation of Genocide Prevention
- Leadership and Communication Skills for Genocide Prevention
- Dialogue, Mediation and Advocacy: Breaking the Barriers of Genocide Prevention
- Managing Actors’ Risks during Genocide Prevention
- Building Partnerships for Genocide Prevention
- Managing Gender Sensitivity during Genocide Prevention
- Monitoring and Evaluation for Genocide Prevention
Chapter 6: Thematic Issues
- Governance and Genocide Prevention
- Victims and Perpetrators after Genocide and Mass Atrocities
- Land Conflicts and Genocide Prevention
- Elections and Genocide prevention
- Advocating for Genocide Prevention: Lessons Learned
- The Judiciary and Genocide Prevention
- Technology and Genocide Prevention
- The Media and Genocide Prevention
- Reconciliation and Genocide Prevention
- Traditional Methods of Conflict Prevention
- Memorialization and Genocide Prevention
Conclusion
Chapter 1: The Practice of Genocide Prevention
Genocide and mass atrocity prevention is a collective enterprise, where the knowledge and implementation of relevant interventions must be realistic and sustainably practical. This occurs through the application of relevant policies, social, political and economic reforms, education and training, public awareness and sensitization, and other projects targeting vulnerable groups. It is done by states, organizations and individuals with a clear commitment to prevention at international, regional, national and grassroots levels.
In the practice of prevention, the above differentiation helps in the articulation of complementary roles that together should demonstrate a shared responsibility to prevent between levels of actors. This is because crimes of genocide and mass atrocities require various operational and legal approaches to produce different but complementary experiences and institutional responses to protect vulnerable communities and victims in potential or actual contexts of genocide or mass atrocities.
The following resources help to explain genocide and prevention as concepts, articulate associated processes, risk factors, and indicators, and provide experiences of prevention as a practice from a human rights, security, justice and peacebuilding perspectives. Other experiences contain lessons learned from early warning systems, including data collection and verification challenges that may compromise effective prevention. Other resources focus on how to prevent by providing practitioners, policy makers and citizens with policy options, guidelines and practices for effective implementation of prevention, including the Responsibility to Protect, are made available in the following chapters.
i. Genocide and Prevention as Concepts, their Process and Possible Indicators
Scott Straus, Identifying Genocide and Related forms of Mass Atrocity, October 2011
Jacob Blaustein Institute for the Advancement of Human Rights, Compilation of Risk Factors and Legal Norms for the Prevention of Genocide, 2011
Jacob Blaustein Institute for the Advancement of Human Rights, Manual on Human Rights and the Prevention of Genocide, 2015
USAID, Preventing Genocide: Five Key Primers, September 2014
Mohammad Abed, Clarifying the Concept of Genocide, July 2006
Moolakkattu Stephen John, The Concept and Practice of Conflict Prevention A Critical Reappraisal, January 2005
Alex J. Bellamy and Stephen McLoughlin, Preventing Genocide and Mass Atrocities: Causes and Paths of Escalation, June 2009
David Scheffer, “Genocide and Atrocity Crimes,” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2006, Vol. 1: Iss. 3: Article 3
MAJ Stephen Matthew Wisniew, Early Warning Signs and Indicators to Genocide and Mass Atrocity, 2012
Sheri P. Rosenberg, Genocide Is a Process, Not an Event, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2012, Vol. 7: Iss. 1
Peter Wallensteen and Frida Möller, Conflict Prevention: Methodology for Knowing the Unknown, Uppsala Peace Research Paper No 7
Erik Melander and Claire Pigache, Conflict Prevention: Concept and Challenges, 2007
Rhiannon S. Neilsen, ‘Toxification’ as a More Precise Early Warning Sign for Genocide than Dehumanization? An Emerging Research Agenda, Genocide Studies and Prevention, An International Journal, 2015, Vol. 9: Iss. 1. pp.83-95
Robert I. Rotberg (ed), Mass Atrocity Crimes: Preventing Future Outrages, Brookings Institute Press, 2010
Jacob Blaustein Institute for the Advancement of Human Rights, Compilation of Risk Factors and Legal Norms for the Prevention of Genocide, 2011
Frank Chalk, ‘Genocide in the 20th Century’: Definition of Genocide and their Implications for Prediction and Prevention, Holocaust Genocide Studies (1989) 4 (2): 149-160
Róisín Hinds and Becky Carter, Indicators for Conflict, Stability, Security, Justice and Peacebuilding, June 2015
Barbara Harff, No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust? Assessing Risks of Genocide and Political Mass Murder since 1955, American Political Science Review Vol. 97, No. 1 February 2003
Birger Heldt, Mass Atrocity Early Warning Systems: Data Gathering, Data Verification and Other Challenges, March 2012
Dimitri Semenovich, Arcot Sowmya and Benjamin E. Goldsmith, Predicting the Onset of Genocide with Sparse Additive Models, 2012
Saferworld, Measuring Peace from 2015: An Indicator Framework at Work, March 2015
Benjamin E. Goldsmith, Charles Robert Butcher, Dimitri Semenovich, and Arcot Sowmya, A Two-Stage Approach to Predicting Genocide and Politicide Onset in a Global Dataset, March 2012
Scott Straus, What Is Being Prevented? Genocide, Mass Atrocity, and Conceptual Ambiguity in the Anti-Atrocity Movement, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
Alexander L. George, Strategies for Preventive Diplomacy and Conflict Resolution: Scholarship for Policy-making, American Political Science Association, Vol. 33, No. 1, 2000
Alex Bellamy, Reducing Risk, Strengthening Resilience: Toward the Structural Prevention of Atrocity Crimes, The Stanley Foundation, April, 2016
Okey Uzoechina, “State Fragility” and the Challenges of Development in West Africa: Moving from Reaction to Prevention, ALC Research Report No. 3, August, 2008
Jennifer M. Welsh and Serena K. Sharma, Operationalizing the Responsibility to Prevent, Oxford Institute for Ethics, Law, and Armed Conflict
[Podcast] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Voices on Genocide Prevention, iTunes
[Podcast] Marshall Poe, New Books in Genocide Studies, iTunes
[Podcast] Scott Straus, Fundamentals of Genocide and Mass Atrocity Prevention, New Books Network, July, 2016
[Podcast] Hasia R. Diner, Gerald Gahima, Chuck Meyers, Kathleen Z. Young, Genocide Conference Panel 1: “Defining the ‘Crime without a Name’”, The University of Chicago’s International and Area Studies Multi Media Outreach Source, April 5, 2008
[Podcast] Dr. Helen Fein, Genocide-Causes and Prevention, Global Impact, 2010
ii. What is Genocide and Mass Atrocity Prevention and How to Prevent
Carnegie Commission, Preventing Deadly Conflict, 1997
Gareth Evans (International Crisis Group), What We Know about Preventing Deadly Conflict: A Practitioner’s Guide, January 2006
Francis M. Deng, Strategies for Preventing Genocide and Mass Atrocities, Talking Points at the All-Party Group for the Prevention of Genocide and Other Crimes Against Humanity, May 2010
Framework of Analysis for Atrocity Crimes: A Tool for Prevention, United Nations, 2014
United States Institute of Peace (USIP), Preventing Violent Conflict (toolkit), February 2009
Dr. Gregory Stanton, How Can We Prevent Genocide? , Speech given at the Raphael Lemkin Centenary Conference, London, 18 October 2000
Matthew C. Waxman (Council on Foreign Relations), Intervention to Stop Genocide and Mass Atrocities, October 2009
Citizen Security Project, Preventing Genocide in Juba: An Agenda for Peace in South Sudan, Africa Policy Institute, May 2014
Building Peace Forum, Preventing Deadly Conflict, September 2013
International Coalition for the Responsibility to Protect, Preventing Mass Atrocities: An Agenda for Policy Makers and Citizens
Ruben Reike, Serena Sharma and Jennifer Welsh, The Strategic Framework for Mass Atrocity Prevention, 2013
Lars Brozus, Improving Mass Atrocities Prevention: Guidelines for Effective and Legitimate Implementation of the Responsibility to Protect, December 2012
Michael S. Lund, Conflict Prevention: Theory in Pursuit of Policy and Practice
Alex J. Ballamy, Mass Atrocities and Armed Conflict: Links, Distinctions, and Implications for the Responsibility to Prevent, February 2011
Robert Muggah and Natasha White, Is There a Preventive Action Renaissance? The Police and Practice of Preventive Diplomacy and Conflict Prevention, February 2013
Seminar Report, UNITAR Peace and Security Series: Preventing Genocide, April 2007
Gareth Evans (International Crisis Group), Preventing Deadly Conflict and the Problem of Political Will, October 2002
Elizabeth S. Rogers. “Using Economic Sanctions to Prevent Deadly Conflict” CSIA Discussion Paper 96-02, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, May 1996
Renata Dawn, Conflict Prevention, SIPRI Yearbook 2002: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, 2002
Bridget Conley-Zilkic, The Pistol on the Wall: How Coercive Military Intervention Limits Atrocity Prevention Policies in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
Aalex J. Bellamy, Operationalizing the “ Atrocity Prevention Lens” : Making Prevention a Living Reality, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
Edward C. Luck and Dana Zaret Luck The Individual Responsibility to Protect, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
Marie V. Gilbert, The EU in West Africa: From Development to Diplomatic Policy?, in Eva Gross and Ana E. Juncos, EU Conflict Prevention and Crisis Management: Roles, Institutions and Policies, Routledge, 2011
James Waller, Confronting Evil: Engaging Our Responsibility to Prevent Genocide, pp. 1- 132 Oxford University Press, 2016
[Video] Raphael Lemkin and the Creation of the word “Genocide”, United to End Genocide
[Video] Preventing Genocide, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, YouTube, March, 2014
[Video]Francis Deng, Preventing Genocide, Foreign Policy Association, YouTube, September, 2016
[Podcast] Steven L. Jacobs, Lemkin on Genocide, New Books Network, April, 2014
Chapter 2: Genocide Prevention and the State: Roles and Approaches
The scale and depth of genocide and mass atrocity crimes afflicted on victim communities by individual perpetrators may be facilitated by the protective shield of the state. National policies, the judiciary, security sector, political ideology, systems and structures of the state can shield, but can also function to prevent these crimes.
This chapter contains resources covering a range of initiatives, instruments and other approaches to guide engaging states and state actors towards being able to prevent genocide and mass atrocities at communal, national and regional/international levels. The resources outlined under this chapter focus on establishing and managing national structures and committees, strategies for developing relevant national policies, best practices and new tools for policy makers to prevent and respond to genocide and mass atrocities. More resources are also provided that contain strategies and approaches to the domestication and application of international instruments, genocide and mass atrocity risk assessments, analysis, and other various UN, African Union and regional instruments that can be applied to contribute to prevention. The chapter also highlights approaches to working with government structures, especially local governments at county, sub-county, parish and village levels.
i. Establishing and Managing National Structures
Auschwitz Institute for Peace and Reconciliation (AIPR), National Mechanisms for the Prevention of Genocide and other Atrocity Crimes: Effective and Sustainable Prevention Begins at Home, 2015
Silvia Fernández de Gurmendi, “The Regional Fora: A Contribution to Genocide Prevention from a Decentralized Perspective”
James P. Finkel, Atrocity Prevention at the Crossroads, Assessing the Presidents Atrocity Prevention Board after Two Years, September 2014
Latin American Network for Genocide and Mass Atrocity Prevention, Annual Report, 2014
Herb Hirsch, “The Genocide Prevention Task Force: Recycling People and Policy”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2009, Vol. 4: Iss. 2
Henry C. Theriault, “The Albright-Cohen Report: From Realpolitik Fantasy to Realist Ethics” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2009, Vol. 4: Iss. 2
International Coalition for the Responsibility to Protect, “Domesticating RtoP and the Prevention of Atrocities: How can Civil Society Engage with Existing National Initiatives?”, April 2014
Genocide Prevention Advisory Network (GPANet), Guiding Principles of the Emerging Architecture aiming at the Prevention of Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity, 2012
John Norris and Annie Malknecht, Atrocities Prevention Board Background, Performance and Options, Center for American Progress, 2013
Walter Delrio, Diana Lenton, Marcelo Musante, and Marino Nagy, “Discussing Indigenous Genocide in Argentina: Past, Present, and Consequences of Argentinean State Policies toward Native Peoples”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2010, Vol. 5: Iss. 2: Article 3
The Stanley Foundation, Atrocity Prevention and US National Security: Implementing the Responsibility to Protect , 2010
Alan J. Kuperman, “Wishful Thinking Will Not Stop Genocide: Suggestions for a More Realistic Strategy”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2009, Vol. 4: Iss. 2
Freedom House, Preventing Atrocities: Five Key Primers, 2014
The International Coalition for the Responsibility to Protect (ICRtoP), Latin America and the Caribbean
Rwanda National Commission for the Fight Against Genocide (CNLG)
Martin Mennecke, “Genocide Prevention and International Law”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2009, Vol. 4: Iss. 2
National Directorate on Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law, National Mechanism for Prevention of Genocide, Ministry of Defense of Argentina
The Global Raphael Lemkin Seminar for Genocide Prevention Series Alumni Meeting (Arusha Meeting), Best Practices and New Opportunities in Genocide Prevention: Governmental Action, Technology and Regional Context , 2013
The White House Fact Sheet: A comprehensive strategy and new tools to prevent and respond to atrocities, Presidential Study Directive 10 (PSD-10), 2011
United to End Genocide, The United States Atrocity Prevention Board (APB)
Madeline K. Albright and William S. Cohen,“Preventing Genocide: a blueprint for US policy makers”, US Genocide Prevention Taskforce, 2008
Conflict Trends 2016/1, African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes, May 2016
Kwesi Aning and Frank Okyere, Responsibility to Prevent in Africa: Leveraging Institutional Capacity to Mitigate Atrocity Risk, The Stanley Foundation, January, 2015
[Video] Charting the U.S. Atrocities Prevention Board’s Progress, Council on Foreign Relations, YouTube, March, 2015
ii. Application of International/Regional Instruments and Norms (AU, IGAD, ICGLR, EAC, SADC,UN, R2P and ICC)
AFRICAN UNION
In 2001, member states signed into effect the Constitutive Act establishing the African Union. The AU aims to promote the human rights of the African People and peace, security and stability in the continent. Article 4 (h) of the constitutive act also reaffirms the norm of ‘responsibility to protect’ in regards to the prevention of genocide and crimes against humanity.
Organization of African Unity (OAU), Constitutive Act of the African Union, July 2000,
Organization of African Unity (OAU), African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (“Banjul Charter”), June 1982
African Union, African Union Non Aggression and Common Defense Pact, January 2005
African Union, Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union, 2002
African Union, Rwanda: the Preventable Genocide, 2000
Ben Kioko, The right of intervention under the African Union’s Constitutive Act: From non-interference to non-intervention , 2003
Bukeni Waruzi, The African Union vs. The International Criminal Court: where should African victims seek justice?, The Huffington Post, June 2013
Tim Murithi, The African Union’s Transition from Non-Intervention to Non-Indifference: An Ad Hoc Approach to the Responsibility to Protect?, 2009
Stephen Burgess, “The African Standby Force, Genocide, and International Relations Theory” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2011, Vol. 6: Iss. 2: Article 4
Budapest Centre for the International Prevention of Genocide and Mass Atrocities, Launch of the Initiative Africa Taskforce on the Prevention of Mass Atrocities, March 2015
Lindsay Alexander, Adam Higazi, James Mackie, Javier Niño-Perez and Andrew Sherriff, Regional approaches to conflict prevention in Africa: European support to African processes, October 2003
Rachel Davis, Benjamin Majekodunmi and Judy Smith-Höhn, Prevention of Genocide and Mass Atrocities and the Responsibility to Protect: Challenges for the UN and the International Community in the 21st Century, International Peace Institute, June, 2008
[Video] “Prevention is Better Than Cure” – Conflict Prevention and Early Warning Division, African Union Peace and Security Department, YouTube, November, 2013
INTER-GOVERNMENTAL AUTHORITY ON DEVELOPMENT (IGAD)
Agreement Establishing the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD)
Sally Healy, Peacemaking in the Midst of War: An assessment of IGAD’s Contribution to Regional Security, November 2009
IGAD, Regional Action Plan for Implementations of UNSC Resolution 1325 (2000) and 1820 (2000)
Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism (CEWARN)
IGAD CEWARN Thematic and Country Specific Reports Relating to Peace and Security Issues
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THE GREAT LAKES REGION (ICGLR)
The International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR) was founded in 2004 with the main objective of consolidating peace and security and to prevent the occurrence of international crimes (including genocide) in the Great Lakes Region. In November 2004, the twelve member states of the ICGLR effectively signed the Pact on Security, Stability and Development in the Great Lakes Region. The Pact includes 10 Protocols, 4 programmes of action with 33 priority projects and is available here (last amended 2012).
The ten legally binding protocols are:
- Protocol on Non-aggression and Mutual Defense in the Great Lakes Region
- Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance
- Protocol on Judicial Cooperation
- Protocol for the Prevention and the Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity and all forms of Discrimination
- Protocol Against the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources
- Protocol on the Specific Reconstruction and Development Zone
- Protocol on the Prevention and Suppression of Sexual Violence Against Women and Children
- Protocol on the Protection and Assistance to Internally Displaced Persons
- Protocol on the Property Rights of Returning Persons
- Protocol on the Management of Information and Communication
ICGLR, Dar es Salaam Declaration on Peace, Security, Democracy and Development in the Great Lakes Region, 2004
Angela Ndinga-Muvumba, Preventing and Punishing Sexual Violence: The Work of the International Conference of the Great Lakes Region, August 2012
Ambassador Liberata Mulamula (Executive Secretary of the ICGLR), Genocide Prevention: Experience Of The International Conference On The Great Lakes Region (ICGLR), March 2010
EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY (EAC)
The East African Community is composed of Uganda, the Republic of Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi and Rwanda. The Treaty for the establishment of the East African Community came into force in 2000 following ratifications by the three original member states. Amongst other objectives, the EAC aims to promote peace, security and stability in the region.
East African Community (EAC), Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community (last amended 2007)
East African Community (EAC), Protocol on Peace and Security
Cecilia Hull, Emma Skeppström and Karl Sörenson, Patchwork for Peace: Regional Capabilities for Peace and Security in Eastern Africa, 2011
United States Agency for International Development (USAID), East Africa Regional Conflict and Instability Assessment (Final Report), March 2012
SOUTHERN AFRICA DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC)
SADC, Declaration and Treaty of the Southern African Development Community (1992)
SADC, Protocol on Politics, Defense and Security Cooperation
SADC, Strategic Indicative Plan for the organ on Politics, Defense and Security Co Operation, Revised Version, 2010
UNITED NATIONS (UN)
In 2004, the then Secretary General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan appointed a Special Advisor on the Prevention of Genocide and subsequently established the Office of the UN Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide. The mandate and work of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide is complimentary to the Special Adviser on the Responsibility to Protect.
UN General Assembly, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 9 December 1948
UN Human Rights Council, Resolution 7/25 – ‘Prevention of Genocide’
Christoph Mikulaschek, The United Nations Security Council and the Responsibility to Protect: Policy Process and Practice, Report from the 39th International Peace Institute Vienna seminar on peacemaking and peacekeeping
United Nations, Framework of Analysis for Atrocity Crimes: a Tool for Prevention, 2014
United Nations, The Human Rights Council Discusses the Prevention of Genocide (high level panel discussion), 7 March 2014
Deborah Mayersen, Current and Potential Capacity for the Prevention of Genocide and Mass Atrocities within the United Nations System, 2010
Kofi Annan, Five Point Action Plan to Prevent Genocide, 2004
UN Human Rights Council, Prevention of Genocide, March 2013
UNITAR Peace and Security Series, Preventing Genocide, Seminar Report, 2-3 April 2007
Dr. Gregory H. Stanton, The Ten Stages of Genocide, 2013
United Nations, Prevention of Genocide, booklet
Payam Akhavan, Report on the Work of the Office of the Special Adviser of the United Nations Secretary-General on the Prevention of Genocide, 2005
United Nations, Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General, January 2005
Hannibal Travis, The United Nations and Genocide Prevention: The Problem of Racial and Religious Bias, Genocide Studies International, 8(2) (2014), pp. 122-152
Ekkehard Strauss, A Short Story of a Long Effort: The United Nations and the Prevention of Mass Atrocities, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
[Video] Eight Stages of Genocide as explained by Gregory H. Stanton, Genocide Watch, YouTube, December, 2010
[Video] Outreach Programme on the Rwanda Genocide and the United Nations
RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT
In 2004, the then Secretary General of the United Nations appointed a Special Adviser on the Responsibility to Protect. The work of the advisor would compliment the mandate of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide. The international norm of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) recognizes that the primary duty to protect citizens from genocide lies with the state but also reaffirms the duty of the international community, international and regional organization. In accordance with her mandate, the Special Adviser submits reports on varied themes to the Secretary General.
United Nations Security Council (UNSC),Resolution 1674, 2006
United Nations Security Council (UNSC), Resolution 1653, 2006
United Nations, A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility, Report of the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, 2004
Edward C. Luck, Taking Stock and Looking Ahead – Implementing the Responsibility to Protect, 2011
Gareth Evans, The Responsibility to Protect: Consolidating the Norm, 2011
Gareth Evans, R2P: The Next Ten Years
Elizabeth More, “International Humanitarian Law and Interventions—Rwanda, 1994”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2007, Vol. 2: Iss. 2
United Nations, The role of regional and sub-regional arrangements in implementing the responsibility to protect (Report of the Secretary-General), June 2011
United Nations, Early Warning, Assessment and the Responsibility to Protect (Report of the Secretary-General), July 2010
United Nations, Implementing the Responsibility to Protect: Report of the Secretary General, 2009
Madeline K. Albright and Richard S. Williamson, The United States and R2P: From Words to Action, United States Institute of Peace, 2013
Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect, Tackling the Threat of Mass Atrocities in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Applying the Responsibility to Protect, May 2010
Philip Verwimp, Foreign Intervention in Rwanda on the Eve of Genocide (1990 -1993): a Game Theory Model, Paper presented to the Genocide Studies Program Seminar, Yale University, 1998
Kuperman, Alan J. (2009) “Darfur: Strategic Victimhood Strikes Again?” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2009, Vol. 4: Iss. 3
Jason Ralph, Mainstreaming the Responsibility to Protect in UK Strategy: Improving the Government’s Response to the Threat of Mass Atrocity, report written for the United Nations Association – UK, 2014
Gentian Zyberi, An Institutional Approach to the Responsibility to Protect, Cambridge University Press, 2013
[Video] A Brief History of R2P, Foreign Policy Association, YouTube, May, 2013
[Video] The United States and R2P: From Words to Action, The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
[Video] R2P After Libya with Gareth Evans, Chatham House, YouTube, October, 2011
[Video] Kofi Annan, The Responsibility to Protect 10 Years On: Reflections on Its Past, Present and Future, Centre for International Policy Studies Ottawa, YouTube, December, 2011
[Video] Humanitarianism and the R2P doctrine: A Conversation with Professor Gareth Evans, ANU TV, YouTube, October, 2013
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (ICC) and other Specialized Tribunals
The Rome Statue establishing the International Criminal Court came into force in 2002 after ratification by 60 member states. The Court is permanently located in the Hague, the Netherlands and is mandated to prosecute the most serious crimes of international concern including: genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and the crime of aggression. Although, the court does not undertake preventative measure, the mere existence of the Court is a powerful deterrent.
UN General Assembly, Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (last amended 2010), 17 July 1998
Understanding the International Criminal Court, International Criminal Court
Victor Peskin,“The International Criminal Court, the Security Council, and the Politics of Impunity in Darfur” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2009, Vol. 4: Iss. 3
Andreas Zimmermann, The creation of a Permanent International Criminal Court
Vera Gowlland-Debbas , “Legal and judicial systems and the prevention and punishment of genocide: Where are we today?”, January 2008
William A. Schabas, “Genocide and the International Court of Justice: Finally, a Duty to Prevent the Crime of Crimes” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2007, Vol. 2: Iss. 2
Is the International Criminal Court (ICC) targeting Africa inappropriately?, Panel Discussion, ICCForum.com
The International Center for Ethics, Justice, and Public Life (Brandeis University), Symposium on the Legacy of International Criminal Courts and Tribunals in Africa: With a focus on the jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, February 2010
United States Institute of Peace, Rwanda: Accountability for War Crimes and Genocide, Report, January 1995
Human Rights Watch (HRW), Making the International Criminal Court Work: a handbook for implementing the Rome Statue, September 2001
René Blattmann, Prevention of Genocide: The Role of the International Criminal Court (ICC), Politorbis, 2007
Chris Mahony, Witness Protection in Africa, Institute for Security Studies (ISS), 2010
United States Institute of Peace, Building the Iraqi Special Tribunal Lessons from Experiences in International Criminal Justice, June 2004
William A. Schabas, Bringing Rwandan Génocidairs to Book, Genocide Studies Program, Yale Center for International and Area Studies, Working Paper GS 11, 1999
Sheri P. Rosenberg, Audacity of Hope: International Criminal Law, Mass Atrocity Crimes, and Prevention, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
Memorandum of Understanding Between the East African Community (EAC) and the Auschwitz Institute for Peace and Reconciliation (AIPR) on Cooperation on the Prevention of Genocide and Other Mass Atrocities, The Auschwitz Institute for Peace and Reconciliation, May, 2016
iii. Working with Organs of the State: Institutions for Running the Affairs of the State e.g. the Executive, Parliament, Judiciary, the Military and the Police
Marko Milanovic, State Responsibility for Genocide, The European Journal of International Law, Vol. 17 (3), 2006
Vera Gowlland-Debbas, Legal and judicial systems and the prevention and punishment of genocide: Where are we today?, Seminar paper on the prevention of Genocide, 21 January 2009
Republic of South Africa, Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act 34 of 1995
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report, Vol 1, October 1998
Nikolaos Hlamides, “The Greek Relief Committee: America’s Response to the Greek Genocide (A Research Note)”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2008, Vol. 3: Iss. 3
Linda Melvern, “The UK Government and the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal: Vol. 2: Iss. 3, 2007
Rob McCormick, “The United States’ Response to Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941–1945”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2008, Vol. 3: Iss. 1
Hollie Nyseth Brehm, Christopher Uggen, and Jean-Damascène Gasanabo, Genocide, Justice and Rwanda’s Gacaca Courts, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 2014
Institute of Global Policy, Government statements on the Responsibility to Protect Africa Region 2005-2008
Samuel Totten, “The US Investigation into the Darfur Crisis and the US Government’s Determination of Genocide”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2006, Vol. 1: Iss. 1
The Open Society Justice Initiative, International Crimes, Local Justice: A Handbook for Rule-of-Law Policymakers, Donors, and Implementer, 2011
United Nations, Responsibility to Protect: State Responsibility and Prevention – Report of the Secretary General, 2013
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), Complementarity in Action: Lessons Learned from the ICTR Prosecutor’s Referral of International Criminal Cases to National jurisdictions for trial, 2015
Michael E. O’Hanlon, Army Genocide Prevention Unit, The Washington Times, 2006
UN Office of the Special Advisers on the Prevention of Genocide and the Responsibility to Protect, Report on the OSAPG Seminars on “ Preventing and Responding to Genocide and Mass Atrocities”, Juba, South Sudan, 25 -29 July 2011,
Kate Doyle, The Guatemala Genocide Case, The Audiencia Nacional, Spain, The National Security Archives, George Washington University, 2008
UN Human Rights Council, Report by OHCHR, OSAPPG, and Secretary General on Prevention of Genocide
Carr Center for Human Rights Policy, Harvard Kennedy School and the US Army Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute, Mass Atrocity Response Operations: a military planning handbook (MARO), 2010,
U.S. Army Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute, Mass Atrocity Prevention And Response Options (MAPRO): A Policy Planning Handbook, March 2012
Andrew Feinstein, Through the Barrel of a Gun: Can Information from the Global Arms Trade Contribute to Genocide Prevention?, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
Dwight Raymond Military Means of Preventing Mass Atrocities, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
George A. Lopez , Mobilizing Economic Sanctions for Preventing Mass Atrocities: From Targeting Dictators to Enablers, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
Preventing Incitement: Policy Options for Action, Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect, United Nations
Paola Gaeta, On What Conditions Can a State Be Held Responsible for Genocide?, European Journal of International Law, Vol.18 (4), 2007
[Podcast] Hasia R. Diner, Gerald Gahima, Chuck Meyers, Kathleen Z. Young, Genocide Conference Panel 2: “Prevention and Response,” The University of Chicago’s International and Area Studies Multi Media Outreach Source, April 5, 2008.
iv. Working with Local Governments: County, Sub – County, Parish and Village Council/Committees
Martha Mutisi, Local Conflict Resolution in Rwanda: The case of abunzi mediators, Integrating Traditional and Modern Conflict Resolution Experiences from selected cases in Eastern and the Horn of Africa, 2012
Rachael Diprose and Ukoha Ukiwo, Decentralization and Conflict Management in Indonesia and Nigeria, Crises Working Paper No. 49, February 2008
Einar Braathen and Sirin Bjerkreim Hellevik, Decentralization, Peace Making, and Conflict Management: from Regionalism to Municipalism, Journal of Peace, Conflict and Development Issue 12, May 2008
African Union, African Charter on the Values and Principles of Decentralization, Local Governance and Local Development
Rao S., Scott Z. and Alam M., Decentralisation and Local Government: Topic Guide (3rd ed.), Birmingham, UK: GSDRC, University of Birmingham, 2014
National Decentralization Policy, Republic of Rwanda Ministry of Local Government and Social Affairs, May, 2001
John-Mary Kauzya, Political Decentralization in Africa: Experiences of Uganda, Rwanda, and South Africa, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, December, 2007
Joseph Siegle and Patrick O’Mahony, Assessing the Merits of Decentralization as a Conflict Mitigation Strategy, 2006
United Nations (Department of Economics and Social Affairs), Reconstructing Public Administration after Conflict: Challenges, Practices and Lessons Learned, 2010
James Bibi Maiah Vincent, A village–up View of Sierra Leone’s Civil War and Reconstruction, IDS Bulletin, January 2013
Jean Paul Faguet, Decentralization and Governance, Economic Organisation and Public Policy Discussion Papers, EOPP 027. London School of Economics and Political Science, London, 2011
Elliott D. Green, Decentralization and conflict in Uganda, Conflict, Security and Development 8 (4), 2008. pp. 427-450
A list of organizations both International and Indigenous, working in the genocide prevention field
The Agahozo – Shalom Youth Village
Chapter 3: Genocide Prevention and Civil Society: Roles and Approaches
The visibility and influence of the civil society, in form of legally or otherwise constituted organizations or groups to advance the wellbeing of targeted communities, continues to grow worldwide. A number of these non-state actors are working in the field of peace building and have gradually become vital “people-centered” voices that provide alternative explanations to “state-centered” discourses emanating from genocide and mass atrocity situations.
This chapter provides resources concerning working with the civil society involving political, religious, traditional and non-governmental organizations, and those working with vulnerable groups like women, youth, minorities and grassroots communities. The resources highlight various roles and approaches towards genocide and mass atrocity prevention, including engaging in early prevention, interfacing with the state and political leaders in governance and democratization processes, violence prevention and peace building. They also cover faith-based and traditional approaches to mediation, conflict transformation, reconciliation and post-conflict reconstruction.
Towards the end, the chapter focuses on working with women, youth, and minorities, as some of the most vulnerable groups that are often specifically affected by genocide and mass atrocity crimes. This section also highlights resources discussing the preventive roles they can play in leadership, security, social integration, building safer and resilient communities.
i. Working with Political Organizations
The Centre for Conflict Resolution, The Peace-building Role of Civil Society in Central Africa, 2006
The United States Genocide Prevention Taskforce, Early Prevention: Engaging Before the Crisis
Samuel Atuobi, State-Civil Society Interface in Liberia’s Post-Conflict Peacebuilding, KAIPTC Occasional Paper No. 30, November 2010
Robert Melson, “Churchill in Munich: The Paradox of Genocide Prevention”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2008, Vol. 3: Iss. 3
Benjamin Reilly and Per Nordlund, Political Parties in Conflict-Prone Societies: Regulation, Engineering and Democratic Development, United Nations University Press, 2008
Matthias Bjørnlund, “’When the Cannons Talk, the Diplomats Must Be Silent’: A Danish Diplomat in Constantinople during the Armenian Genocide” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2006, Vol. 1: Iss. 2
Ernesto Verdeja, “On Situating the Study of Genocide within Political Violence” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2012, Vol. 7: Iss. 1
ii. Working with Religious Leaders and Institutions
Forum on the role of religious leaders in preventing incitement that could lead to atrocity crimes (Fez Declaration), Fez, Morocco, 24 April, 2015
The Role of Religious Leaders in Preventing Incitement that could lead to Atrocity Crimes (Fez Plan of Action), Fez, Morocco, 24 April, 2015
Susan Hayward, Religion and Peacebuilding: Reflections on Current Challenges and Future Prospects, United States Institute of Peace, 2012
Christopher Tuckwood, Engaging Religion in the Prevention of Genocide,
United States Institute of Peace, Catholic Contributions to International Peace, 2001
David Steele, A Manual to Facilitate Conversations on Religious Peacebuilding and Reconciliation, USIP
Susan Hayward, Averting Hell on Earth Religion and the Prevention of Genocide, USIP, 2010
United States Institute of Peace, Can Faith-Based NGOs Advance Interfaith Reconciliation? The Case of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2003
Michelle G. Garred and Sister Joan D. Castro, Conflict-Sensitive Expressions of Faith in Mindanao: A Case Study, Journal of Religion, Conflict and Peace, 2011, Vol 4 (2)
Michael Kalin and Niloufer Siddiqui, Religious Authority and the Promotion of Sectarian Tolerance in Pakistan, USIP, 2014
Frida Kerner Furman, Religion and Peace building: Grassroots Efforts by Israelis and Palestinians, Journal of Religion, Conflict and Peace, 2011, Vol 4 (2)
United States Institute of Peace, Faith-Based NGOs and International Peacebuilding , 2001
Susan Hayward, Religion and the Prevention of Genocide and Mass Atrocity,Politorbis, 2009, Nr. 47 – 2
David Smock, Religion in World Affairs its Role in Conflict and Peace, USIP, 2008
Dr. Sara Silvestri et James Mayall, Le rôle de la religion dans les conflits et la consolidation de la paix, The British Academy, septembre, 2015
iii. Working with Non Governmental Organizations (NGO’s)
Phoebe Wynn–Pope, NGOs and the Prevention of Mass Atrocities Crimes: A Practical Workshop for NGOs to Develop and Share Strategies to Implement the Responsibility to Protect in the Asia-Pacific Region, OxFam Australia, November, 2009
Rosemarie McNairn, Building capacity to resolve conflict in communities: Oxfam experience in Rwanda, Gender & Development, 2004, 12:3, 83-93
Masaki Sawa, Evaluation of the Roles of NGOs in Preventing Genocide: A Theoretical Approach and its Evaluation, Comparative Genocide Studies 2012-2013, Vol. 3
Fred Tanner, Conflict Prevention and Conflict Resolution: Limits of Multilateralism, International Review of the Red Cross, No. 839
Task Force on the EU Prevention of Mass Atrocities, The EU and the Prevention of Mass Atrocities: an assessment of strengths and weaknesses, February 2013
Kerry Whigham, Performing Prevention: Civil Society, Performance Studies, and the Role of Public Activismin Genocide Prevention, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
Gareth Evans, Preventing Deadly Conflict: The Role and Responsibility of Governments and NGOs, Speech, February, 2001
There are a number of Non Governmental Organizations (NGO’s) working in the genocide/mass atrocity prevention field. These NGO’s distributed across the globe provide for various resources and programs on prevention. Below is a comprehensive list of NGO’s with a link to their resource page:
All Party Parliamentary Group for the Prevention of Genocide and Other Crimes Against Humanity
Auschwitz Institute for Peace and Reconciliation (AIPR)
Center for Peacebuilding (CIM), Bosnia and Herzegovina
Coalition for the International Criminal Court (CICC)
Coordinadora Regional de Investigaciones Económicas y Sociales (CRIES)
Genocide Prevention Advisory Network (GPANet)
Genocide Prevention Now (GPN)
Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect (GCR2P)
Human Rights Watch (HRW)
Institute for Security Studies (ISS)
International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS)
International Centre for Transitional Justice (ICTJ)
International Crisis Group (ICG)
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
The Genocide Studies Program at Yale University’s MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies
The International Coalition for the Responsibility to Protect (ICRtoP)
The Jacob Balustien Institute for the Advancement of Human Rights (JBI)
The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
United States Institute of Peace (USIP)
[Video] Genocide Watch, Video Section
iv. Working with Traditional Leaders
Roger Blench, Selbut Longtau, Umar Hassan and Martin Walsh, The Role of Traditional Rulers in Conflict Prevention and Mediation in Nigeria, as prepared for DFID Nigeria, November 2006,
Martha Mutisi, The Abunzi Mediation in Rwanda: Opportunities for Engaging with Traditional Institutions of Conflict Resolution, October 2011
Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Liberia, The Role of Religious and Traditional Institutions during Conflict and in Peacebuilding,Fall 2011-Spring 2012, Volume 5, Issue 1 and 2
Volker Boege, Traditional Approaches to Conflict Transformation – Potentials and Limits, 2006
Jérôme Tubiana, Victor Tanner, and Musa Adam Abdul-Jalil, Traditional Authorities’ Peacemaking Role in Darfur, United States Institute of Peace, November 2012
Olarinan Olusula and Arigu Aisha, Traditional Rulers and Conflict Resolution: An Evaluation of Pre and Post-colonial Nigeria, 2013
v. Working with Women and Youth
Women
UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 1325, 2000, October, 2000
United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM, now known as UNWOMEN), CEDAW and Security Council Resolution 1325: A Quick Guide
Joseph Vess, Gary Barker, Sanam Naraghi-Anderlini, and Alexa Hassink, The Other Side of Gender: Men as Critical Agents of Change, USIP, December, 2013
Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, More Than Victims: The Role of Women in Conflict Prevention, A Conference Report, September 2002
World Federalist Movement- Institute for Global Policy (WFM-IGP), Responsibility to Protect, Empowering Women in the Prevention of Genocide
Gender and Post-Conflict: Promoting the Participation of Women in Post-Conflict Reconstruction, Conference Report, 22 June 2011
Susan Mcay, Reconstructing Fragile Lives: Girls’ Social Reintegration in Northern Uganda and Sierra Leone, 2004,
Megan MacKenzie, Securitization and Desecuritization: Female Soldiers and the Reconstruction of Women in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone, 2009
Naomi R. Cahn, Women in Post-Conflict Reconstruction: Dilemmas and Directions, 2006, William & Mary Journal of Women and the Law Vol. 12, Iss. 2
U.S. Civil Society Working Group, Expert Statement for the U.S. National Action Plan on Women, Peace and Security
Isobel Coleman, Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Importance of Women’s Participation, Testimony before the Congressional Human Rights Caucus, 2004
Mary Michele Connellan, Unloading “The Protection of Vulnerable Groups” and Considering Gender: When the Vulnerable Protect the Vulnerable, Paper for presentation at the Fourth Global International Studies Conference 2014, August 2014
Christiane Agboton Johnson, Peace and Security: Women’s leadership in conflict prevention and resolution in the Sahel Region: Half the sky, April, 2013
Elisa von Joeden–Forgery, Gender and the Future of Genocide Studies and Prevention, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2012, Vol 7 (1)
Reva N. Adler, Cyanne E. Loyle, Judith Globerman, “A Calamity in the Neighborhood: Women’s Participation in the Rwandan Genocide”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2007, Vol. 2: Iss. 3
Anuradha Chakravarty, “Inter-ethnic Marriages, the Survival of Women, and the Logics of Genocide in Rwanda” , Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2007, Vol. 2: Iss. 3,
Valerie Norville, The Role of Women in Global Security, United States Institute of Peace (2011),
Elaine Zuckerman and Marcia Greenberg, The Gender Dimensions Of Post-Conflict Reconstruction: An Analytical Framework For Policymakers, Gender and Development, 2004, Volume 12, Number 3
United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, Gender and Post Conflict Reconstruction: Lessons Learnt from Afghanistan, Joint Workshop Report, July 2003
Global Grassroots: Conscious Social Change for Women
Charting a New Course, Thought for Action Kit: Women Preventing Violent Extremism, The United States Institute of Peace, May, 2015
UN Documents for Women, Peace and Security, Security Council Report
Youth
African Union (AU), The African Youth Charter, 2006
Henrik Urdal, A Clash of Generations? Youth Bulges and Political Violence, International Studies Quarterly, 2006, Iss. 50, No. 3
Bureau of Crisis Prevention and Recovery (UNDP), Youth and Violent Conflict:
Society and Development in Crisis? A Strategic Review with a special focus on West Africa, April, 2005
Dabesaki Mac-Ikemenjima, Youth development, reintegration, reconciliation and rehabilitation in post-conflict West Africa: A framework for Sierra Leone, Liberia and Cote d’Ivoire, International NGO Journal, 2008, Vol. 3 (9). pp. 146-151
Mark Sommers, Fearing Africa’s Young Men: the case of Rwanda, Social Development Papers, Paper No. 32, January, 2016
Freedom C. Onuoha, Why do youth join Boko Haram?, United States Institute of Peace (USIP), June 2014,
Mercy Corps, Youth and Conflict: Best Practices and Lessons Learned
USAID, Youth and Conflict: A Toolkit for Intervention, 2005
Marc Sommers and Stephanie Schwartz, Dowry and Division: Youth and State Building in South Sudan, (USIP), November 2011
Marc Sommers and Peter Uvin, Youth in Rwanda and Burundi: Contrasting Visions, United States Institute of Peace (USIP), October 2011
Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), Engaging Youth to Build Safer Communities: A Report of the CSIS Post-Conflict Reconstruction Project, August, 2006
Thokozani Thusi and Angela McIntyre, Children and Youth in Sierra Leone’s Peace Building Process, African Security Review, 2003, Vol. 12, No. 2
Ellie Keen, Right to Remember: A Handbook for Education on Young People on the Roma Genocide, Council of Europe, 2014
Fabien Dushimirimana, Vincent Sezibera & Carl Auerbach, Pathways to Resilience in Post-genocide Rwanda: A Resources Efficacy Model, 2014
Anna Larson and Noah Coburn, Youth Mobilization and Political Constraints in Afghanistan: The Y Factor, USIP, January, 2014
Marc Sommers and Stephanie Schwartz, Dowry and Division Youth and State Building in South Sudan, USIP, 2011
Stephanie Schwartz, The Dynamic Role of Youth in Post – Conflict Reconstruction: Lessons from Mozambique, Democratic Republic of Congo and Kosovo, Wesleyan University, 2008
Stephanie Schwartz, Youth and Post-Conflict Reconstruction: Agents of Change, USIP Press, May 2010 (Book)
Theo Dolan and Christine Mosher, Radio’s Power for Peace Among South Sudan’s Youth, USIP, August 2013
Neven Knezevic and W. Glenn Smith, Peacebuilding Education and Advocacy in Conflict-Affected Contexts Programme, UNICEF, June, 2015
vi. Working with Minorities and Grassroots Communities
Sarah Cliffe, Scott Guggenheim and Markus Kostner, Community-Driven Reconstruction as an Instrument in War-to-Peace Transitions, August, 2003
International Peace Academy, Empowering Local Actors: The UN and Multi-Track Conflict Prevention
Minority Rights Group International, “Preventing and addressing violence and atrocity crimes targeted against minorities”, Contribution of the United Nations Network on Racial discrimination and Protection of Minorities to the Seventh Session of the Forum on Minority Issues, November 2014
Andrew Woolford, “Ontological Destruction: Genocide and Canadian Aboriginal Peoples”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2009, Vol. 4: Iss. 1
Lori Garcia-Alix and Robert K. Hitchcock, “A Report from the Field: The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples—Implementation and Implications”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2009, Vol. 4: Iss. 1
Diana Vinding and Robert K. Hitchcock, “A Chronology of Important Events in the Genocides and Rights of Indigenous Peoples”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2009, Vol. 4: Iss. 1
Rachel Anderson Paul, Grassroots mobilization and Diaspora politics: Armenian Interest Groups and the Role of Collective Memory, Nationalism and Ethnic Politicas, Vol. 6 (1)
Katherine Elinghaus, “Biological Absorption and Genocide: A Comparison of Indigenous Assimilation Policies in the United States and Australia”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2009, Vol. 4: Iss. 1
Walter Delrio, Diana Lenton, Marcelo Musante, and Marino Nagy, “Discussing Indigenous Genocide in Argentina: Past, Present, and Consequences of Argentinean State Policies toward Native Peoples” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2010, Vol. 5: Iss. 2
Arthur Molenaar, Gacaca: Grassroots Justice after Genocide: The key to reconciliation in Rwanda?, Africa Studies Center, Lieden 2005
Evariste Karangwa, Pol Ghesquière and Patrick Devlieger, The Grassroots Community in the Vanguard of Inclusion: the Post‐genocide Rwandan Prospects, International Journal of Inclusive Education, 2007, Vol 11 (5-6)
Chapter 4: Approaches to Early Warning and Early Response: Application and Management
Early warning systems help to provide accurate, timely and useful information for identifying and tracking escalation of hostilities towards genocide and mass atrocities. Prevention occurs when results from assessment of risks are utilized to develop and implement relevant policies, tools, projects and other interventions, early enough to transform relationships, respond to root causes, and de-escalate the conflict. The following are some of the resources that can guide working with the states, international and regional organizations, and the civil society to achieve early warning, and to be able to provide early responses. The resources provide a range of systems and approaches that can be incorporated into policies and programs tailored for preventing violence and mass killings.
Particularly, the resources cover conceptual and empirical dilemmas of early warning and early response, and also observations, best practices and lessons learnt from application of associated systems. They also include case studies that indicate strategies, methodology and possible tools for early warning in genocidal conditions, including unique perspectives on gender-based and community level approaches. Information is also provided on approaches to qualitative and quantitative data collection, analysis and verification, documentation and reporting. Finally the resources contain guidance on limitations of EW and ER, and offer some recommendations and options for redress.
i. Existing Early Warning and Early Response frameworks for Genocide and Mass Atrocity Prevention: Lessons Learned and Best Practices
Frederick Barton, Karin von Hippel, Sabina Saqueina and Mark Irvine, Early Warning? A Review of Conflict Prediction Models and Systems, Center for Strategic and International Studies, February, 2008
Conflict Prevention and Post–Conflict Reconstruction (CPR) Network, Early Warning and Early Response Handbook, Version 2.3 September 2005
Lawrence Woocher, Developing a Strategy, Methods and Tools for Genocide Early Warning, prepared for the Office of the Special Adviser to the UN Secretary-General on the Prevention of Genocide, September, 2006
Yale University, Patterns of Conflict and Cooperation in Liberia (Part 2): Prospects for Conflict Forecasting and Early Warning
Birger Heldt, Risks, Early Warning and Management of Atrocities and Genocide: Lessons from Statistical Research, 2009, Politorbis, Vol. 47, No. 2. pp. 65-70
Helena Puig Larrauri and Tim Receveur, Nigeria Special Report: Early Warning and Early Response in Plateau State, Build Up and PeaceTech Lab
Jessica Leaning and Patrick Meier, Community-Based Conflict Early Warning and Response, The Harvard Humanitarian Initiative for Humanity United, May, 2008
Brigitte Rohwerder, Conflict Early Warning and Early Response, 2015
Rhiannon S. Neilsen, “‘Toxification’ as a More Precise Early Warning Sign for Genocide than Dehumanization? An Emerging Research Agenda”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2015 Vol. 9: Iss. 1
UNWOMEN, Gender-Responsive Early Warning: Overview and How-to Guide, October 2012
MAJ Stephen Matthew Wisniew, Early Warning Signs and Indicators to Genocide and Mass Atrocity, School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Army Command and General Staff College, 2012
Charles R. Butcher Benjamin E. Goldsmith Dimitri Semenovich and Arcot Sowmya, Understanding and Forecasting Political Instability and Genocide for Early Warning, Australian Responsibility to Protect Fund, the Asia-Pacific Centre for the Responsibility to Protect and the University of Queensland, 2012
Barbara Harff, No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust? Assessing Risks of Genocide and Political Mass Murder since 1955, American Political Science Review, 2003, Vol. 97, No. 1
Anna Mateeva, Early Warning and Early Response: Conceptual and Empirical Dilemmas, European Centre for Conflict Prevention, September 2006
Howard Adelman and Astri Suhrke, The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience, Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda, March, 1996
Simon-Skjodt, Center for the Prevention of Genocide, Early Warning Signs of Genocide in Burma, 2015
Madhawa Palihapitiya, Early Warning, Early Response: Lessons from Sri Lanka, Alliance for Peacebuilding, September, 2013
Jennifer Leaning, Early Warning for Mass Atrocities: Tracking Escalation Parameters at the Population Level, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
Ernesto Verdeja, Predicting Genocide and Mass Atrocities, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2016, Vol. 9: Iss. 3
Fred Grünfeld Wessel Vermeulen, Failures to Prevent Genocide in Rwanda (1994), Srebrenica (1995), and Darfur (since 2003), Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2009, Vol. 4: Iss. 2
Dr. Gregory Stanton, Early Warning, Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity, Thomson-Gale, 2005
[Video] Genocide: A Preventable Crime-Understanding Early Warning of Mass Atrocities-Press Conference, UN Web TV, January, 2014
[Video] Genocide-A Preventable Crime-Panel Discussion, UN Web TV, January, 2014
ii. Working with the State and Civil Society towards Early Warning
International Coalition for the Responsibility to Protect, Civil Society and R2P
Richard Batley and Claire Mcloughlin, State Capacity and Non-state Service Provision in Fragile and Conflict-affected States, February, 2009
Martina Fischer, Civil Society in Conflict Transformation: Strengths and Limitations, Berghof Foundation
John Mark Opoku, West African Conflict Early Warning and Early Response System: The Role of Civil Society Organizations, KAIPTC Paper, No. 19, September, 2007
Socheata Poeuv, Genocide Prevention and Cambodian Civil Society, February, 2009
Thelma Ekiyor, The Role of Civil Society in Conflict Prevention: West African Experiences, The Complex Dynamics of Small Arms in West Africa, 2008
David-Ngendo Tshimba, A Continental Conflict Prevention Mechanism on the Horizon? An Assessment of the Early Warning System in Africa, Thinking Africa, February, 2014
iii. Data Collection, Analysis and Verification for Early Warning and Early Response
Human Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDAG)
Françoise Roth, Tamy Guberek and Amelia Hoover Green, Using Quantitative Data to Assess Conflict-Related Sexual Violence in Colombia: Challenges and Opportunities, Bogotá, Colombia: Corporación Punto de Vista & Benetech Technology Serving Humanity, March 2011
Romesh Silva and Jasmine Marwaha, Collecting Sensitive Human Rights Data in the Field: A Case Study from Amritsar, India, University of California at Berkeley and Ensaaf, August 2011
Romesh Silva, Quantitative Data Analysis of Large-scale Human Rights Violations: An Example of Applied Statistics at the Grassroots, Human Rights Data Analysis Group, February, 2013
Department of International Development (DFID), Tools for Measurement, Monitoring and Evaluation: Making Conflict, Crime and Violence Data Usable, March 2013
Jack A. Goldstone, Using Quantitative and Qualitative Models to Forecast Instability, United States Institute of Peace, March 2008
Andrew J. Marx, A New Approach to Detecting Mass Human Rights Violations Using Satellite Imagery, August 2013
Alexander Austin, Early Warning and The Field: A Cargo Cult Science?, Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management, 2011
Megan Price and Patrick Ball, Big Data, Selection Bias, and the Statistical Patterns of Mortality in Conflict, SAIS Review of International Affairs, 2014, Volume 34, Number 1. pp. 9-20
German Development Institute and UNDP, User’s Guide on Measuring Fragility
Henrik Lundin, Crisis and Conflict Prevention with an Internet Based Early Warning System, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Sweden
Birger Heldt, Mass Atrocities Early Warning Systems: Data Gathering, Data Verification and Other Challenges,Folke Bernadotte Academy, March, 2012
Chad Hazlett, “New lessons learned? Improving genocide and politicide forecasting”, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC, 2011
Philip Verwimp, A Quantitative Analysis of Genocide in Kibuye Prefecture, Rwanda, Catholic University of Leuven, May, 2001
Search for Common Ground, Conflict Scan Guidance Notes, March 2015
Israel W. Charny, Worksheet for Describing and Categorizing a Genocidal Event: Data Collection and Analysis of Genocides in Multiple Defined Subcategories (with worksheet), GenocidePreventionNow, December, 2012
The Practical Use of Early Warning and Response in Preventing Mass Atrocities and Genocide: Experiences from the Great Lakes Region. Ashad Sentongo in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press
The Argentinean National Mechanism for the Prevention of Genocide: A Case Study in Contemporary Preventive Institution-Building. Ramiro Riera in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
Deconstructing Risk and Developing Resilience: The Role of Inhibitory Factors in Genocide Prevention. Deborah Mayersen in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
Le projet d’alerte précoce, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
[Vidéo] National Violence Outbreak Early Warning System in Kenya, Google Tech Talks, March, 2011
iv. Documentation and Reporting for Early Warning and Early Response
HURIDOCS is an international NGO helping human rights organisations use information technologies and documentation methods to maximise the impact of their advocacy work. HURIDOCS have created various manuals to aid in documentation of human rights violations. Below is the list of manuals:
- A tool for Documenting Human Rights Violations: HURIDOCS Events Standard Formats
New Tactics, Documenting Violations: Choosing the Right Approach, September, 2009
Patricia A. Gossman, Documentation and Transitional Justice in Afghanistan, United States Institute of Peace (USIP), September 2013
Brittany L. Card and Isaac L. Baker, “GRID: A Methodology Integrating Witness Testimony and Satellite Imagery Analysis for Documenting Alleged Mass Atrocities”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2014, Vol. 8: Iss. 3
Megan Price and Patrick Ball, Data Collection and Documentation for Truth- Seeking and Accountability, Syria Justice and Accountability Centre, January, 2014
UNDP, USAID AND IPI, New Technology and the Prevention of Violence and Conflict, April 2013
James Waller, Confronting Evil: Engaging Our Responsibility to Prevent Genocide, pp. 135 – 210 Oxford University Press, 2016
v. Working with State and Civil Society towards Early Response
U.S. Army War College’s Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute (PKSOI), Mass Atrocity Response Operations (MARO) Handbook and 2010 Revised Edition
Oxfam Australia, Early Warning for Protection: Technologies and Practice for the Prevention of Mass Atrocity Crimes, Outcome Document, May, 2011
Stephen F. Burgess, “Comments on the Mass Atrocity Response Operations (MARO) Handbook” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2011, Vol. 6: Iss. 1
Clingendael Institute of International Relations, Conflict Prevention and Early Warning in the Political Practice of International Organizations, February, 1996
Gareth Evans, Responding to Mass Atrocity Crimes: The Responsibility to Protect after Libya, Speech, October, 2011
Global Partnership for the Prevention of Armed Conflict and GANEP, Early Warning and Early Response, Workshop on “Early Warning & Early Response Practice: Sharing the WANEP Experience” & Strategy Planning, August, 2007
Paul van Tongeren and Christine van Empel (eds), European Centre for Conflict Prevention, Joint Action for Prevention Civil Society and Government Cooperation on Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding, Issue Paper 4, December, 2007
vi. Working with International and Regional Organizations for Early Warning and Early Response
Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), Protocol on the Establishment of a Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism for IGAD Member States,
Herbert Wulf and Tobias Debiel, Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanisms: Tools for Enhancing the Effectiveness of Regional Organisations? A comparative Study of the AU, ECOWAS, IGAD, ASEAN/ARF and PIF, London School of Economics (LSE), May, 2009
Taskforce on the EU Prevention of Mass Atrocities, The EU and the Prevention of Mass Atrocities: an Assessment of Strengths and Weaknesses, 2013
Katja H. Christensen, Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism in the Horn of Africa: IGAD as a Pioneer in Regional Conflict Prevention in Africa, October, 2009
Birikit Terefe Tiruneh, Establishing an Early Warning System in the African Peace and Security Architecture: Challenges and Prospects, KAIPTC Occasional Paper No. 29, September, 2010
vii. Limitations of Early Warning and Early Response: Options of Redress
Klaas Van Walraven, Early Warning and Conflict Prevention: Limitations and Possibilities, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, (Book),
Organisation for Economic Co – Operation and Development (OECD), Preventing Violence, War and State Collapse: The Future of Conflict Early Warning and Response, 2009
Gregory H. Stanton, The Rwandan Genocide: Why Early Warning Failed, Journal of African Conflicts and Peace Studies, Vol. 1 Issue 2, September, 2009
Megan Price and Patrick Ball, The Limits of Observation for Understanding Mass Violence, Canadian Journal of Law and Society, June, 2015
Chapter 5: Skills for Handling of Genocide and Mass Atrocity Prevention
Strengthening the knowledge and skills to analyze and manage interventions in genocidal and mass atrocity situations is at the heart of effective prevention programs and projects. Experts, state and non-state actors engaging in efforts to develop associated policies, laws and projects should understand the whole of the conflict process they are dealing with, to be able to determine and appropriately manage the necessary interventions. Skills in prevention should guide state, community and civil society leaders to be conflict sensitive and to integrate preventive measures in social, political and economic development initiatives. The aim is to prioritize prevention of escalation of hostilities and being able to terminate protracted conflict processes through well-tailored programming and management processes.
The following resources provide knowledge drawn from a range of disciplines e.g. management science, political science, international relations, psychology, and non-traditional processes e.g. needs assessment, early warning and response, to guide towards the necessary skills and approaches to prevention of genocide and mass atrocities. The resources also focus on both structural and relational elements and approaches to planning and management of prevention, and in that way provide a holistic guide to implementing all-inclusive interventions that are informed by all factors in the conflict situation.
To this end, the areas covered by the resource include planning and implementation of prevention, leadership and communication skills, dialogue, mediation and advocacy, managing actors’ risks during prevention, building partnerships for genocide prevention, managing gender sensitivity during prevention, and monitoring and evaluation of prevention.
i. Planning and Implementation of Genocide Prevention
Luc Reychler, Proactive Conflict Prevention: Impact assessment?, International Journal of Peace Studies
SaferWorld, Introduction, Conflict-sensitive approaches to development, humanitarian assistance and peace building: tools for peace and conflict impact assessment, January 2004
SaferWorld, Conflict Sensitive Planning, Conflict-sensitive approaches to development, humanitarian assistance and peace building: tools for peace and conflict impact assessment, Chapter 3, Module 1, January 2004
Samuel Atuobi, Implementing the ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Framework: Prospects and Challenges, Policy Brief 3/2010, Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre, 2010
USAID, Conducting Conflict Assessment: A Framework for Strategy and Program Development, April 2005
CDA Collaborative Learning Projects, The “Do No Harm” Framework for Analyzing the Impact of Assistance on Conflict: A Handbook, Revised April, 2014
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Elections and Conflict Prevention: A Guide to Analysis, Planning and Programming, August, 2009
Kathleen Kuehnast, Manal Omar, Steven E. Steiner, and Hodei Sultan, Lessons from Women’s Programs in Afghanistan and Iraq, March 2012
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), Better Programming Initiative, 2003
CARE International, Applying Conflict Sensitivity at Project Level – Case Study 1 CARE International Kenya’s SWEETENING JUSTICE PROJECT
[Video] Crisis Management Initiative (CMI), Foresight for conflict prevention in the Middle East, Key Drivers of Conflict in Egypt, Jordan and Lebanon, December, 2012
Guide d’analyses du conflit, UN System Staff College
James Waller, Confronting Evil: Engaging Our Responsibility to Prevent Genocide, pp. 211 – 278, Oxford University Press, 2016
ii. Leadership and Communication Skills for Genocide Prevention
Beatrix Schmelzle, Training for Conflict Transformation – An Overview of Approaches and Resources,
Dirk Sprenger, The Training Process: Achieving social impact by training individuals? How to make sure that training for conflict transformation has an impact on conflict transformation, Berghof Research Center, June, 2005
United Nations, Building Capacities for Public Service in Post-Conflict Countries, 2007
Alastair J. McKechnie, Building Capacity in Post – Conflict Countries, March 2004,
Simon Fisher, Dekha Ibrahim Abdi, Jawed Ludin, Richard Smith, Steve Williams and Sue Williams, Working with Conflict: Skills and Strategies for Action, Zed Books, 2000
Gilbert M. Khadigala and Terrence Lyons, The Challenges of Leaderships in Post Conflict Transitions: Lessons from Africa, 2006
Elisa Lopez Lucia, Capacity Building in the Ministry of Interior in Fragile and Post-conflict Countries, GSDRC, 2015
HPM C’Leod, The Role of Political Leadership in Post Conflict Recovery: The Case of Sierra Leone, George Mason University, School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, 2006
Deborah Mancini-Griffoli and André Picot (Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue), Humanitarian Negotiation: A handbook for securing access, assistance and protection for civilians in armed conflict, October 2004
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Capacity Development in Post Conflict Countries, 2010
Ron Kraybill, Facilitation Skills for Interpersonal Transformation, Berghof Foundation, Revised August, 2004
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Leadership and Change in Post‐Conflict States: A Case Study of Liberia, 2010
Partners for Democratic Change, Strengthening Women’s Leadership in Post Conflict Environment
[Video] Mobilizing the Will to Intervene: Leadership and Action to Prevent Mass Atrocities, United States Institute of Peace, YouTube, September, 2009
iii. Dialogue, Mediation and Advocacy: Breaking the Barriers of Genocide Prevention
United Nations, Guidance for Effective Mediation, September 2012
Hans J. Giessmann and Oliver Wils, Seeking Compromise? Mediation Through the Eyes of Conflict Parties, Berghof Foundation, 2010
Norbert Ropers, From Resolution to Transformation: The Role of Dialogue Projects, Transforming Ethnopolitical Conflict, 2004
EU-US Technical Dialogue and Increased Cooperation in Crisis Management and Conflict Prevention, Work Plan, March, 2008
International Alert: Women Waging Peace, Inclusive Security, Sustainable Peace: A Toolkit for Advocacy and Action, 2004,
European Union, Concept on Strengthening EU Mediation and Dialogue Capacities, November 2009
European Union, Strengthening National Capacities for Mediation and Dialogue: National Dialogue Platforms and Infrastructures for Peace, November 2012
European Union, Mediation and Dialogue in Transitional Processes from Non-state Armed Groups to Political Movements/Political Parties, November 2012
European Peace building Liaison Office (EPLO), EPLO Statement on the European Union’s Role in Dialogue and Mediation, October 2009
Mark Barwick, Before the Unspeakable Occurs: Dialogue and the Prevention of Mass Atrocities, January 2015
Budapest Centre for the International Prevention of Genocide and Mass Atrocities, Dialogue as a Tool for Addressing Mass Atrocities
Hannes Siebert, National Peace and Dialogue Structures: Strengthening the Immune System from Within instead of Prescribing Antibiotics, in Barbara Unger, Stina Lundström, Katrin Planta and Beatrix Austin (eds). Peace Infrastructures – Assessing Concept and Practice. Berghof Handbook Dialogue Series No. 10. Berlin: Berghof Foundation, December, 2012
Elazar Barkan, Historical Dialogue and the Prevention of Atrocity Crimes, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
iv. Managing Actors’ Risks During Genocide Prevention
Larissa Fast, Security and Risk Management for Peace Building Organizations, Berghof Foundation, 2014
CARE, Benefits/Harm Handbook, September, 2001
Jeremy Levitt, Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution: Africa – Regional Strategies for the Prevention of Displacement and Protection of Displaced Persons: The Cases of OAU, ECOWAS, SADC and IGAD, 2001
Department for International Development (DFID), Conducting Conflict Assessment: Guidance Notes
Forum on Early Warning and Early Response (FEWER), Conflict Analysis and Response Definition: Abridged Methodology, April, 2001
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Conflict Prevention in Resource Rich Economies, December, 2011
Jolyon Ford, Engaging the Private Sector in Africa’s Peaceful Development, Policy Brief 55, Institute for Security Studies (ISS), June, 2014
v. Building Partnerships for Genocide Prevention
Bureau for Resources and Strategic Partnerships (BRSP) and Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR), Experiences from the Field: UNDP-CSO Partnerships for Conflict Prevention, July, 2005
Ulrike Hopp and Barbara Unger, Time to Learn: Expanding Organizational Capacities in Conflict Settings, January, 2009
Abikök Riak, The Local Capacities for Peace Project: the Sudan Experience, Development in Practice, Volume 10, Numbers 3 & 4, August, 2000
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Issues Paper for the Session on Partnerships and Civil Society: Roles and Capabilities in Conflict Prevention and Peace building, October, 2004
Zhang Chun and Mariam Kemple-Hardy, From conflict resolution to conflict prevention: China in South Sudan, CPWG Briefing 1, SaferWorld, March, 2015
Martina Fischer, Civil Society in Conflict Transformation: Strengths and Limitations, in Austin, M. Fischer, H.J. Giessmann (eds.), Advancing Conflict Transformation, The Berghof Foundation, 2011
Martina Fischer, Civil Society in Conflict Transformation: Ambivalence, Potentials and Challenges, October, 2006
Huma Hider, Community-based Approaches to Peacebuilding in Conflict-affected and Fragile Contexts, Issues Paper, November, 2009
Vladimir Bratic and Lisa Schirch, Why and When to Use the Media for Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding, December 2007,
Saferworld, Partnerships in Conflict Prevention: China and the UK (Issue 2)
Friedrich Glasl and Rudi Ballreich, Team and Organizational Development as a Means for Conflict Prevention and Resolution, Global Partnership for the Prevention of Armed Conflict, Issue Paper 6, December, 2007
vi. Managing Gender Sensitivity during Genocide Prevention
Elisa Von Joeden-Forgery, Gender and the Future of Genocide Studies and Prevention, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2012, Vol. 7: Iss. 1: Article 10
Gabriele Zdunnek, Gender-Sensitivity and Gender-Blindness in Conflict Early Warning Systems – with a Case Study on the Niger Delta Region (Nigeria), PeaceWomen, August 2010
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, Focus on Gender and Peace-building: Gender and Conflict-sensitive Program Management
United States Institute of Peace (USIP), Gender, War and Peace Building
European Union, Women’s Participation and Gender, Fact Sheet, November 2012,
Tatjana Sikoska and Juliet Solomon, Introducing Gender in Conflict Prevention: Conceptual and Policy Implications, UN International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (UN-INSTRAW), 1999
UN-INSTRAW, Institute for Security Studies, and FAHAMU, Gender, Peace and Security in Africa, African Leadership Centre, Nairobi, Kenya, May 2012
Cilja Harders, Gender Relations, Violence and Conflict Transformation, Beghof Foundation, 2011
Kimberly Theidon, Kelly Phenicie and Elizabeth Murray, Gender, Conflict, and Peace Building: State of the field and lessons learned from USIP Grantmaking, 2011
Nada Mustafa Ali, Gender and Statebuilding in South Sudan, December 2011
USAID, Implementation of the United States National Action Plan on Women, Peace and Security, August 2012
Sofie Ospina, Is Resolution 1325 making a difference?, Alliance For Peacebuilding, March, 2014
Donald Stienberg, The Role of Men in Engendered Peacebuilding, Alliance For Peacebuilding, March, 2014
Valerie M. Hudson, Secure Women, Secure States, Alliance For Peacebuilding, March, 2014
Dewi Suralaga, Why Peace Depends on Women, Alliance For Peacebuilding, March, 2014
Maxwell C.C. Musingafi, Emmanuel Dumbu and Patrick Chadamoyo, Gender Dynamics and Women in Conflict Situations and Post Conflict Recovery: Experiences from Africa, 2013
Elisa Von Joeden-Forgey, Gender, Sexualized Violence, and the Prevention of Genocide, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
[Podcast] Amy Randall, Genocide and Gender in the Twentieth Century: A Comparative Survey, New Books Network
vii. Monitoring and Evaluation for Genocide Prevention
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Evaluating Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding Activities, Factsheet, 2008
Conflict Prevention and Post-Conflict Reconstruction Network, Peace and Conflict Impact Assessment (PCIA) Handbook, Version 2.2, September, 2005
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Guidance for Evaluating Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding Activities: Working Draft for Application Period, 2008
Cheyanne Scharbatke-Church, Evaluating Peacebuilding: Not Yet All It Could Be, Berghof Foundation
Mark Hoffman, Peace and Conflict Impact Assessment Methodology, Berghof Foundation, Revised August, 2004
Department for International Development (DFID), Working Effectively in Conflict-affected and Fragile Situations, Briefing Paper I: Monitoring and Evaluation, March 2010
Kenneth Bush, A Measure of Peace: Peace And Conflict Impact Assessment (PCIA) Of Development Projects In Conflict Zones, 1998
United Nations, Guidelines for Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation in Conflict Prevention and Recovery Settings
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Handbook on Planning, Monitoring and Evaluating for Development Results, 2009
Melanie Kawano-Chiu, The Future is Now: Evaluation and Impact in the next two decades, Alliance For Peacebuilding, September, 2014
N. Dabelstin, Evaluating the International Humanitarian System: Rationale, Process and Management of the Joint Evaluation of the International Response to the Rwanda Genocide, Disasters, 1996, vol. 20, Iss. 4. pp.287–294
Alex J. Bellamy and Adam Lupel, Why We Fail: Obstacles to the Effective Prevention of Mass Atrocities, New York: International Peace Institute, June, 2015
Chapter 6: Thematic Issues
Situations of genocide and mass atrocities contain a complex relationship between historical, social, political and cultural factors on which mass killings and other crimes intended to destroy a group are predicated. The emerging multi-level and multi-dimensional genocide prevention architecture around the world seeks to craft complementary solutions to disable these key factors from being exploited to mobilize for violence, and to create awareness and sensitivity about them.
This chapter contains various resources organized under thematic areas to provide a conceptual and operational terrain to help shape possible interventions to terminate genocidal processes. For example, considering the role of the state in existing cases of organized, deliberate, and targeted mass killings, the resources cover rule of law, economic conditions of especially peasants, governance and conflict indicators, democracy, etc.
Other themes covered through a prevention perspective include land and electoral conflicts, human rights, advocacy and treatment of victims and perpetrators after genocide and mass atrocities, and the roles of the judiciary, technology, media, traditional methods, and memorization in genocide prevention. The resources considered under reconciliation provide lessons learned and recommendations towards prevention, especially from truth-seeking commissions (e.g. in Rwanda and Kenya).
i. Governance and Genocide Prevention
Center for Conflict Resolution, Security and Governance in the Great Lakes Region, July 2015
Centre for Governance, Peace, and Security: Actualizing a Preventative Approach
Dr. Marta Martinelli, Governance Assistance in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Options for European Union Engagement, Open Society International
Lauren Hutton, Internal and External Dilemmas of Peacebuilding in Africa, Institute for Security Studies, ISS Paper 250, January 2014
Dr. Tobias Debiel and Ulf Terlinden, Promoting Good Governance in Post Conflict Societies: A discussion paper, GTZ, 2005
Gerald Gahima “Reestablishing the rule of law and encouraging good governance [in Rwanda]”, 2002
Filip Reyntjens, Constructing the truth, dealing with dissent, domesticating the world: governance in post genocide Rwanda, African Affairs 1 – 34, 2010
Philip Verwimp, An Economic Profile of Peasant Perpetrators of Genocide:Micro-level Evidence from Rwanda, 2003
Department for International Development (DFID), Governance and Conflict Indicators Report, 2011
United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Governance in Conflict Prevention and Recovery: a guidance note, 2009
Anthony F. Lang Jr, Global Governance and Genocide in Rwanda, Ethics & International Affairs, 16, 2002. pp 143-150
Mahgoup El – Tigani Mahmoud, Inside Darfur: Ethnic Genocide by a Governance Crisis, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 24.2, 2004. pp. 3-17
Ben Kiernan, Genocide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the U.N., and the International Community, Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1993
ii. Victims and Perpetrators after Genocide and Mass Atrocities
Human Rights Center UC Berkeley School of Law, Bearing Witness at the International Criminal Court: an interview survey of 109 witnesses, June 2014
James Waller, Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing, Oxford University Press, 2005
Binaifer Nowrojee, “Your Justice is Too Slow” Will the ICTR Fail Rwanda’s Rape Victims?, November 2005
Isaura Zelaya Favila (Lewin Fellow, Dartmouth College),Treatment of Post‐Traumatic Stress Disorder in Post‐Genocide Rwanda, July 2009
Lauren Wolfe, How Rwandans Cope with the Horror of 1994, The Atlantic, April, 2014.
Richard Neugebauer, Prudence W Fisher, J Blake Turner, Saori Yamabe, Julia A Sarsfield and Tasha Stehling-Ariza,Post-traumatic stress reactions among Rwandan children and adolescents in the early aftermath of genocide, International Journal of Epidemiology, 38, (4), 2009
Anne Pearlman, Restoring Self in Community: Collective Approaches to Psychological Trauma after Genocide, Journal of Social Issues, 69, 2013. pp. 111–124
Judy Barsalou, Trauma and Transitional Justice in Divided Societies, United States Institute of Peace, April 2005
International Centre for Transitional Justice (ICTJ) – Uganda, “Reparations for Northern Uganda: Addressing the Needs of Victims and Affected Communities”, 2012
Regine U. King, “Healing Psychosocial Trauma in the Midst of Truth Commissions: The Case of Gacaca in Post-Genocide Rwanda”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2011, Vol. 6: Iss. 2
Dr. Gregory Stanton, Creation of a Victims Register by the ECCC, Genocide Watch
Avocats Sans Frontières and Justice and Reconciliation Project, Victim’s views on the draft transitional justice policy for Uganda: Acholi Sub – Region, Victim Consultation, June 5, 2013
Verónica Michel and Kathryn Sikkink, Human Rights Prosecutions and the Participation Rights of Victims in Latin America, Law & Society Review, 47: 873–907, 2013,
Phil Clark and Nicola Palmer, Testifying to Genocide: victims and witness protection in Rwanda, The Redress Trust
Sylvia Servaes and Nicole Birtsch, Engaging with Victims and Perpetrators in Transitional Justice and Peace Building Processes, Workshop Report, Working Group on Development and Peace (FriEnt), February 2008, Bonn, Germany
Saira Mohamed, Of Monsters and Men: Perpetrator Trauma and Mass Atrocity, Berkeley Law Scholarship Repository, June, 2015
Michael T. Klare, Resource Predation, Contemporary Conflict, and the Prevention of Genocide and Mass Atrocities, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
Owen C. Pell and Kelly Bonner, Corporate Behavior and Atrocity Prevention: Is Aiding and Abetting Liability the Best Way to Influence Corporate Behavior?, in Sheri P. Rosenberg, Tibi Galis and Alex Zucker, Reconstructing Atrocity Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2015
James Waller, Confronting Evil: Engaging Our Responsibility to Prevent Genocide, pp. 279–350, Oxford University Press, 2016
[Podcast] Christopher Powell, Barbaric Civilization: A Critical Sociology of Genocide, New Books Network, September, 2013
[Podcast] Lee Ann Fujii, Killing Neighbors: Webs of Violence in Rwanda, New Books Network, 2012
iii. Land Conflicts and Genocide Prevention
Jean Bigagaza, Carolyne Abong and Cecile Mukarubuga,“Land Scarcity, Distribution and Conflict in Rwanda”, in Scarcity and Surfeit: The Ecology of Africa’s Conflicts, ISS Africa
Erica Gaston and Lillian Dang, Addressing Land Conflict in Afghanistan, United States Institute of Peace, June 2015
Peter Van der Auweraert, Institutional Aspects of Resolving Land Disputes in Post-conflict Societies, November 2013
Laura A. Young and Korir Sing’Oei, Land, Livelihoods and Identities: Inter-community Conflicts in East Africa, Minority Rights Group International, 2011
Mahaphonh, Ngaosrivathana, Phimphachanh, Chittasupha, et al., Study on Land Conflicts and Conflict Resolution in Lao PDR, Land Policy Study No. 9 under LLTP II, Lao-German Land Policy Development Project, 2007
Babette Wehrmann, Land Conflicts: A Practical Guide to Dealing with Land Disputes, Eschborn, 2008
Shinichi Takeuchi and Jean Marara, Conflict and Land Tenure in Rwanda, Japan International Cooperation Agency Research Institute (JICA), 2009
Stephen Brosha, The Environment and Conflict in the Rwandan Genocide
Centre for Advance Study (CAS), Justice for the Poor? An Exploratory Study of Collective Grievances over Land and Local Governance in Cambodia, October 2006
Deininger Klaus, Selod Harris and Burns Anthony, The Land Governance Assessment Framework: Identifying and Monitoring Good Practice in the Land Sector, World Bank 2012
Karol Boudreaux, “Land Conflict and Genocide in Rwanda”, 2009
Val Percival and Thomas Homer – Dixon, Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conflict: the Case of South Africa, Journal of Peace Research, 1998
Koen Vlassenroot (ed), Dealing with Land Issues and Conflict in Eastern Congo: Towards an Integrated and Participatory Approach, 2012
Chris Huggins, The Challenges of Land Scarcity and Protracted Social Conflict in Rwanda: a discussion paper, African Center for Technology Studies (ACTS)
Paul Gready, ‘You’re either with Us or Against Us’: Civil Society and Policy Making in Post-Genocide Rwanda, Oxford University Press on behalf of Royal African Society, July, 2010
iv. Elections and Genocide prevention
Guiding Framework for Preventing Electoral Violence, “Applied Practice and Theory (APT) Series on Genocide Prevention in the Africa Great Lakes Region 2013”, George Mason University, 2013
Joe Paden, Religion and Conflict in Nigeria: Countdown to the 2015 Elections, United States Institute of Peace (USIP), February 2015
Claire Elder, Susan Stigant, and Jonas Claes, Elections and Violent Conflict in Kenya: making prevention stick, United States Institute of Peace, 2014
Dorcas Ettang, Beatrice Nzovu-Ouma and Martha Bakwesegha-Osula, Managing Election-related Violence: Elections in the Democratic Republic of Congo, November 2011
Trixie Akpedonu, Ben Lumsdaine and Aminata Sow, Keeping the peace: Lessons learned from preventive action towards Kenya’s 2013 elections, Geneva Peacebuilding Platform Paper No. 10, December 2013
Abdullahi Boru Halakhe, “R2P in Practice”: Ethnic Violence, Elections and Atrocity Prevention in Kenya, Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect, Occasional Paper Series No. 4, December, 2013
v. Advocating for Genocide Prevention: Lessons Learned
Independent Inquiry on the 1994 Rwandan Genocide
Samuel Totten, “The State and Future of Genocide Studies and Prevention: An Overview and Analysis of Some Key Issues”,Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2011, Vol. 6: Iss. 3
Madeline K. Albright and William S. Cohen,“Preventing Genocide: a blueprint for US policy makers”, US Genocide Prevention Taskforce, 2008
Edward Kissi, The Holocaust as a Guidepost for Genocide Detection and Prevention in Africa, The Holocaust and the United Nations Outreach Programme, Discussion Papers Series Volume I (5)
David A. Hamburg, Preventing Genocide: Practical Steps Toward Early Detection and Effective Action, 2008
Dr. Gregory Stanton, The Rwandan Genocide: Why Early Warning Failed, Journal of African Conflicts and Peace Studies, Volume 1, Number 2, September 2009. pp. 6–25
John Eriksson, The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience, March 1996
Dr. Gregory Stanton, Preventing Genocide, United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), Powerpoint Presentation
Dr. Susan Cook, A Report to the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor U.S. Department of State, The Cambodian Genocide Program, 1999-2000
Michael Pryce, How to Prevent a Mass Atrocity, Genocide Watch
Elihu D. Richter, Commentary on Genocide: Can We Predict, Prevent, and Protect?, Journal of Public Health Policy, 2008
Samantha Power, Stopping Genocide and Securing “Justice”: Learning by Doing, 2002
[Podcast] Dr. Gerald Caplan, “Genocide Prevention and the International Community: A Fable for Our Time?”
vi. The Judiciary and Genocide Prevention
Bert Ingelaere, “The Gacaca Courts in Rwanda”, in Traditional Justice and Reconciliation after Violent Conflict: Learning from African Experiences, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA), 2008
Amaka Megwalu and Neophytos Loizides, Dilemmas of Justice and reconciliation: Rwandans and the Gacaca courts
Kasande Sarah Kihika and Meritxell Regué, “Pursuing Accountability for Serious Crimes in Uganda’s Courts: Reflections on the Thomas Kwoyelo Case” , International Centre for Transitional Justice (ICTJ), January 2015
vii. Technology and Genocide Prevention
United Nations, Resolution 41/65 Principles Relating to the Remote Sensing of the Earth from Space, 3 December 1986
Kelly McKone, Maria J. Stephan, and Noel Dickover, Using Technology in Nonviolent Activism Against Repression, United States Institute of Peace (USIP), January 2015
International Evidence Locker, Medical College of Wisconsin
O’Connell, Tommy and Young, Stephen, “No More Hidden Secrets: Human Rights Violations and Remote Sensing”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2015, Vol. 8: Iss. 3. pp. 5-31
Mark S. Ellis, Bridging Technology and Law to Bring Perpetrators of Atrocities to Justice, The Huffington Post 09/06/2015,
Rory Cellan – Jones, EyeWitness App Lets Smartphones Report War Crimes, 8 June 2015, BBC News,
Daniel Stauffacher, Willian Drake, Paul Currion and Julia Steinberger, Information and Communication Technology for Peace: The Role of ICT in Preventing, Responding to and Recovering from Conflict, United Nations ICT Task Force, 2005
Brittany L. Card and Isaac L. Baker GRID: A Methodology Integrating Witness Testimony and Satellite Imagery Analysis for Documenting Alleged Mass Atrocities, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2014, Vol. 8: Iss. 3. pp. 49-61
Richa Sehgal, Ushahidi, Initiative on Violence Against Women, 2014
Dr. Michael L. Best, Reconciliation and the Web, Journal of Religion, Conflict and Peace, Vol 5, Fall 2011 – Spring 2012
Jaimie Morse, “Documenting Mass Rape: Medical Evidence Collection Techniques as Humanitarian Technology”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2014, Vol. 8: Iss. 3. pp.63-79
Yale University, Genocide Studies Program
Amnesty International USA (AIUSA) and American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), Eyes on Darfur Project
Nathaniel A. Raymond,Brittany L. Card, and Isaac L. Baker, Isaac L. (2014) “A New Forensics: Developing Standard Remote Sensing Methodologies to Detect and Document Mass Atrocities” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2014, Vol. 8: Iss. 3. pp. 33-48
Satellite Images
- Boko Haram, Nigeria
- Darfur, Sudan
- Aleppo, Syria
Elizabeth Omara–Otunnu, Remote Sensing Can Provide Evidence of Genocide, 2009,
Christopher Tuckwood, “The State of the Field: Technology for Atrocity Response”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2014, Vol. 8: Iss. 3. pp. 81-86
The Satellite Sentinel Project
Viola Gienger, Detecting Looming Border Conflicts Using Satellites, United States Institute of Peace, September 2013,
Colette Mazzucelli, Humanitarian Technologies and Genocide Prevention: A Critical Inquiry, Genocide Studies and Prevention, Fall 2014, 8, 3. pp. 87-99
Ana Chirstina Munez, Admissibility of Remote Sensing Evidence Before International and Regional Tribunals, Innovations in Human Rights Monitoring Working Paper, 2012
viii. The Media and Genocide Prevention
Alan Thompson, The Media and the Rwandan Genocide, Fountain Publishers, 2007
Rousbeh Legatis, Media-Related Peacebuilding in Processes of Conflict Transformation, Berghof Foundation, 2015
Naji Abou-Khalil and Laurence Hargreaves , Libyan Television and its Influence on the Security Sector, United States Institute of Peace, April 2015
Nik Gowing, Media Coverage: Help or Hinderance in Conflict Prevention, (1997)
Maureen Taylor and Theo Dolan, Mitigating Media Incitement to Violence in Iraq: A Locally Driven Approach, United States Institute of Peace (USIP), March 2013,
Jean-Paul Marthoz (CPJ Senior Adviser), What is the Media’s Role in Preventing Genocide, Huffington Post 06/07/2012,
Timmermann, Wibke (2008) “Counteracting Hate Speech as a Way of Preventing Genocidal Violence”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2008, Vol. 3: Iss. 3
Georgina Holmes, “Did Newsnight Miss the Story? A Survey of How the BBC’s “Flagship Political Current Affairs Program” Reported Genocide and War in Rwanda between April and July 1994” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2011, Vol. 6: Iss. 2
Coalition for the International Criminal Court (CICC), NGO Media Outreach: Using the Media as an Advocacy Tool, September 2003
Unites States Institute of Peace, User Guidelines for Preventing Media Incitement to Violence in Iraq: Elections Edition
Theo Dolan, Countering Hate Speech in South Sudan through Peace Radio, United States Institute of Peace, May 2014
[Video] Media and Genocide Prevention: What Have We Learned from Rwanda?, Voice of America, 2014
ix. Reconciliation and Genocide Prevention
Ervin Staub, Laurie Anne Pearlman, Alexandra Gubin and Athanase Hagengimana, Healing Reconciliation, Forgiving and the prevent of violence after genocide or mass killing: an intervention and its experimental evaluation in Rwanda, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 2005, Vol. 24, No. 3. pp. 297-334
Ervin Staub, Reconciliation after Genocide, Mass Killing, or Intractable Conflict: Understanding the Roots of Violence, Psychological Recovery, and Steps toward a General Theory, 2006
Ervin Staub, Promoting Reconciliation After Genocide and Mass Killing in Rwanda—and Other Post Conflict Settings: Understanding the Roots of Violence, Healing, Shared History, and General Principles, in Arie Nadler, Thomas Malloy, and Jeffrey D. Fisher, Social Psychology of Intergroup Reconciliation, Oxford University Press, 2008
USAID, Training of trainers Manual: Conflict Transformation and Peacebuilding in Rwanda, June, 2008
UNIFEM (now UNWOMEN), Securing the Peace: Guiding the International Community towards Women’s Effective Participation throughout Peace Processes, October, 2005
John Prendergast and David Smock, Post Genocidal Reconciliation: Building Peace in Rwanda and Burundi, United States Institute of Peace, 1999
Jennie E. Burnet, “The Injustice of Local Justice: Truth, Reconciliation, and Revenge in Rwanda”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2008, Vol. 3: Iss. 2
Pierre Hazan, Morocco: Betting on a Truth and Reconciliation Commission, United States Institute of Peace, July 2006
Christopher Gitari Ndungú, “Lessons to Be Learned: An Analysis of the Final Report of Kenya’s Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission”, International Centre for Transitional Justice (ICTJ), 2014
Eduardo González and Howard Varney (eds),Truth Seeking: Elements of Creating an Effective Truth Commission, International Justice for Transitional Justice (ICTJ), 2013
Tim Murithi and Allan Ngari (eds), The ICC and Community-Level Reconciliation: In-country Perspectives Regional Consultation Report, Institute for Justice and Reconcilation, 2011
Geneviève Parent,“Reconciliation and Justice after Genocide: A Theoretical Exploration”, Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2010, Vol. 5: Iss. 3
The International Center for Transitional Justice (ICTJ) and the Kofi Annan Foundation, “Challenging the Conventional: Can Truth Commissions Effectively Strengthen Peace Processes?”, June, 2014
Susan Dominus, Photographed by Pieter Hugo, Portraits of Reconciliation, The New York Times Magazine, 2014
[Video] Healing Wounds of Rwanda’s Genocide by Reconciling Survivor and Perpetrator, PBS News Hour, May 28, 2014
[Podcast] Jennie Burnet, Genocide Lives in Us: Women, Memory and Silence in Rwanda, New Books, December, 2013
x. Traditional Methods of Conflict Prevention
Dr. Ashad Sentongo and Andrea Bartoli, Conflict Resolution under the Ekika System of the Baganda in Uganda, Excerpt from Integrating Traditional and Modern conflict resolution experiences from selected cases in Eastern and Horn of Africa, Africa Dialogue Monograph Series NO. 2/2012, African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes
Endalew Lijalem Enyew, Ethiopian customary dispute resolution mechanisms: Forms of restorative justice?, African Journal on Conflict Resolution, African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes
UNESCO, The Role of Culture in Peace and Reconciliation, April 2013,
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistant (IDEA), Traditional Justice and Reconciliation after Violent Conflict: Learning from African Experiences, 2008
Buhari, Lateef Oluwafemi and Ajayi, Adeyinka Theresa, Methods of Conflict Resolution in African Traditional Society, IAAPR, 2014
Jacqueline Wilson, Local Peace Processes in Sudan and South Sudan, United States Institute of Peace, 2014
xi. Memorialization and Genocide Prevention
Nereida Cross and Helen Jarvis, Documenting the Cambodian Genocide on Multimedia, Yale Centre for International and Area Studies Genocide Studies Program, Working Paper GS 04 (1998),
Aaron Weah, Post Conflict Memorialization in Liberia: Progress and Challenges, 2012
African Union Commission, The African Union Human Rights Memorial: Remembering Victims of Mass Atrocities in Africa, January 2012
Genocide Memorials, Genocide Archive of Rwanda
Kigali Genocide Memorial, Testimonies and Confessions from Perpetrators
Judicial Archives from the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, The Holocaust Survivors and Victims Resource Center
Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum
Susan E. Cook, The Politics of Preservation in Rwanda, 2006
Elisabeth King, “Memory Controversies in Post-Genocide Rwanda: Implications for Peacebuilding” Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal, 2010, Vol. 5: Iss. 3
Judy Barsalou and Victoria Baxter, The Urge to Remember The Role of Memorials in Social Reconstruction and Transitional Justice, United States Institute of Peace, January 2007
Liberata Gahongayire, The Contribution of Memory in Healing and Preventing Genocide in Rwanda, International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies, 2015
Conclusion
This resource manual has attempted to provide learning materials to help expand understanding of the scope and range of instruments and approaches to genocide and mass atrocity prevention. AIPR recognizes and appreciates the works and contributions of individuals, institutions, organizations, and efforts of all involved that have made it possible to develop and publish these resources. We are hopeful that organizing them into a single resource and presenting them thematically will make easy reference for governments, international organizations, national mechanisms and civil society organizations to guide the development and implementation of more effective interventions towards prevention.
AIPR works to build a world that prevents genocide and mass atrocity crimes. Sustained application of the tools, frameworks and other guidelines contained in these resources, and sharing of experiences in how they contribute to guide practitioners towards effective prevention will help create a more informed and effective genocide and mass atrocity prevention community. We are also hopeful that partnerships, networks and collaborations between users and producers of these resources will emerge to expand the practice of prevention across disciplines and fields of works.
The next phase in this effort is to develop a Training Manual for Genocide and Mass Atrocity Prevention. In lieu of the provision of thematically organized genocide prevention resources, this Training Manual will provide more detailed, narrative instruction taking into account lessons learned from the application of this Training Resource Manual. We therefore encourage and invite users of this resource manual to exchange ideas and to give feedback to AIPR about identified gaps, needs, priorities and how to best to customize the Training Manual to develop skills and improve effectiveness of prevention efforts especially in vulnerable and victim communities. Please use the contacts provided on this website for such communication and other relevant opinions.
In this regard, regional, country and community-specific experiences and observations will be most appreciated, to ensure the next step captures and is well tailored to appropriately respond to the needs of each working environment. For example, the type of curriculum for short courses for government officials, civil society and community leaders, as well as training courses for practitioners in the field of genocide and mass atrocity prevention.
Contact Us
For questions and comments, please contact the staff of AIPR’s Africa Programs:
Director – Dr. Ashad Sentongo – ashad.sentongo@auschwitzinstitute.org
New York Liaison – Claire Williams – claire.williams@auschwitzinstitute.org